sociocultural approach: individual and the group Flashcards

Question

modelling

Answer 1

role model demonstrates behaviour

Answer 2

copying the model's behaviour

Answer 3

attention retention motivation potential

Answer 4

attend to the behaviour the model is modelling

Answer 5

remember the features of the behaviour/action

Answer 6

wanting to repeat the behaviour the model is performing and expect an outcome

Answer 7

the observer has the physical and/or mental capability to repeat the observed behaviour

Answer 8

our behaviour gets rewarded, so we are more likely to repeat that behaviour

Answer 9

we watch someone's behaviour get rewarded so we are more likely to copy the behaviour

Answer 10

model: stands out, consistent behaviour, liked+respected, member of in-group, reinforced behaviour

Answer 11

to see if children would imitate aggressive behaviour

Answer 12

72 children, aged 3-5

Answer 13

give children group based on aggression before study: aggressive model, non aggressive model, no model Steps: 1- modelling- watch adult either perform aggressive or calm behaviour to a bobo doll 2- aggression arousal- put children in a room full of new toys, tell them the toys are not for them but for other children, this gives them all the same baseline aggression 3- test for delayed imitation- put children in a room with aggressive and non-aggressive toys (including the bobo doll) and watch their behaviour

Answer 14

children exposed to aggressive behaviour are more likely to imitate aggressive behaviour, control group imitated the least, imitated same gender more (social comparison)

Answer 15

Aggression can be learnt via the mechanisms of SCT Imitation of aggression can occur after only a single exposure to the aggressive act Aggression may be observed in one setting and imitated in a different setting Children appear to have learned the behaviour by observing the models

Answer 16

Therefore, when the children were exposed to modelling of aggressive behaviour and observed this, they demonstrated learning through the imitation of aggressive behaviour. The children were more likely to imitate if they were observing a same-sex role model as they were more likely to identify with the model and their motivation would be increased.

Answer 17

The study is an experiment using a matched pairs design. This means that the researchers controlled for the child's level of aggression in the different groups. Controlled observational study with a standardised procedure → replicable and could be repeated to test for reliability

Answer 18

The sample size was very small. In addition, these were all children of people working at Stanford University. It is difficult to generalise from such a sample. The study shows that aggression may be learned, but it does not study whether aggression is innate. It is not truly a counter-argument to the theory that aggression has biological origins. The study is ethically problematic - exposing children to adult violence against the Bobo. The study is cross-sectional, looking only at aggression exhibited as a result of seeing the adult hit the Bobo. It did not monitor long-term effects on the children. It can be argued that the children experienced undue stress and there was a potential for long-term psychological effects on their behaviour. The situation is highly controlled and it is not normal for children to be left alone with strangers in this way. The study lacks ecological validity. Only shows short-term effects of observed aggression, hard to see if there are also long-term effects

Answer 19

to see the impact of TV on children's aggressive behaviour Longitudinal and natural study

Answer 20

Conducted in 3 small towns in British Columbia and Canada Notel community, TV introduced in 1973, 1975 new channel Other 2, already had TV 120 children Observed physically and verbally abusive behaviour of children on the playground Teacher and peer ratings of aggressive behaviour

Answer 21

Aggressive behaviour of children in Notel significantly increased 1973-1975 Other 2 towns, no significant change in aggressive behaviour Peer and teacher ratings supported findings Heightened arousal (from TV) results in greater likelihood of aggression

Answer 22

Exposure to TV significantly increased both physical and verbal aggression in both genders Watching violence causes violence

Answer 23

More ethical as aggression is not induced, the addition of TV is something that would have happened anyway

Answer 24

Difficult to tell what exactly caused the increase in aggression- maybe it's the increased age of the children or a change in the strictness of parent Lack of control over how much TV each child watches Potential research bias through participant observation (could eliminate by observing children at recess through playground cameras rather than interaction with them)

Answer 25

Practical, high real-world applicability e.g. video games, film age ratings, media → cautionary tale in the media ‘16 and pregnant Improvement on earlier theories → assumed learning only occurs with rewards and punishment Low predictive power → hard to predict when an observed behaviour will/ will not be imitated Only explains individual behaviour to an extent → possibly limited to only explaining behaviour in individualistic cultures → self-efficacy is more important in individualistic cultures → personal self-efficacy is essential for success regardless if achieved individually or in a group Collectivist → at least some most show self-efficacy → variable is hard to measure → unclear to what extent SCT is on a global scale Used in enculturation Difficult to test the concepts of attention, retention, motivation and potential A strength of the social cognitive theory is that it takes into account the social and cultural context in which enculturation occurs. It predicts that children acquire internal standards for behaviour through reward and punishment - either by personal or vicarious experience. A number of empirical studies support the notion of modelling.

Answer 26

a generalisation about a group of people

Answer 27

applying one trait to a group of people / applying the results from a study to a wider target group of people (assuming the sample is representative)

Answer 28

a mental organisation of information, containing everything we know about a certain thing

Answer 29

model of human behaviour, states that there are 3 factors influencing how humans behave: behavioural, environmental, personal

Answer 30

actions, efforts, choices, statements

Answer 31

actions of others, social context

Answer 32

attitudes, values, self-efficacy, personality

Answer 33

process by grouping people together based on certain characteristics

Answer 34

an attitude make a judgement about individuals with little information about them except for group membership

Answer 35

behaviour of negative actions towards one or a group of people, can be due to group membership

Answer 36

tendency to search for / favour information that confirms/supports personal beliefs or values

Answer 37

wanting to make the in-group and out-group as different as possible, due to social comparison, we give negative traits to the out-group (leading to stereotypes to a whole group based on one person)

Answer 38

a bias where we perceive a relationship/association that doesn't exist (may be due to confirmation bias)

Answer 39

social identity theory illusory correlations

Answer 40

→through social categorisation, social identification and social comparison →the bias towards the outgroup may generalise to each member of the group, forming a stereotype about people in the outgroup →positive distinctiveness due to social comparison →Schaller (1991): shows that out-group bias and social comparison can lead to negative stereotypes being created against out-group members, even if they are not true

Answer 41

→a bias where we perceive a relationship that doesn’t exist →Hamilton + Gifford (1976): people associate more negative traits with smaller groups They believe that each individual is more representative of the small group, so their traits can apply to the whole group Makes people see a relationship that doesn’t exist => illusory correlation, leads to a stereotype about a group

Answer 42

determine how group membership may lead to stereotyping

Answer 43

141 US university students Randomly assign participants to a group Give each participant statements about members of both groups (desirable and undesirable behaviours)

Answer 44

When asked about their group, they recalled stereotyping statements favouring their group (in-group bias) Better recalled negative stereotypes of out-group

Answer 45

This social categorisation into in-group and out-group resulted in the in-group favouritism even if the membership to the group was random and short-term

Answer 46

Shows that stereotyping can be explained through SIT, because an individual’s self concept is derived from perceived membership in a group If the way they perceive their group is positive, the individual will perceive themselves positively

Answer 47

high in reliability because it is replicating Tajfel

Answer 48

Artificial because we learn about people’s traits/character through their behaviour rather than statements about them Very controlled conditions Less ecological validity Low population validity, cannot generalise

Answer 49

investigate illusory correlation of group size and negative behaviour for stereotype formation

Answer 50

Participants read about 2 made up groups (a=26 b=13) Descriptions based on positive and negative behaviours Told that ‘a’ was larger Had to rank members of each group: → 20 attributes given to a or b e.g. popular → give example of behaviour and say if person doing it was in a or b → asked to estimate how many statements for each group were undesirable

Answer 51

Most undesirable given to minority (b) Most desirable given to majority (a)

Answer 52

Illusory correlation may be due to group size Minority (b) was smaller → negative traits were more distinct and seem to be representative of the group Negative stereotypes are more common for smaller groups

Answer 53

Hamilton & Gifford argued that this was because the minority group was by nature smaller in number, their negative behaviours appeared more distinct and appear to be representative of the group. So, one minority male is caught stealing and it appears to be related to the fact that he is a minority. This demonstrates why negative stereotypes may be more common for minority groups than for the majority. Such research has led to the modern practice in many countries not to report the race or ethnicity of people who have been charged with a crime

Answer 54

Redid study, sample=70f Not told that ‘b’ was the minority Showed illusory correlation but ‘b’ had more positive stereotypes By telling participants that ‘b’ was minority, they may be primed to see them more negatively

Answer 55

The researchers created two groups, A and B, for which there would be no pre-existing stereotypes. This increased the level of internal validity. The study was a repeated measure design. The IVs were the positive or negative statements - and the size of each group. The conditions were concurrent. This means that there were not two distinct conditions run separately. This eliminates the variable of participant variability - all participants took part in all aspects of the study.

Answer 56

It was, however, highly artificial - meaning that ecological validity was low. We cannot know to what extent this predicts the development of stereotypes under natural conditions. In real life, there is much more context to making stereotypes - this could include economic competition, legitimate or unwarranted fear of others, institutionalised racism or prejudice, and/or actual experiences with members of the other group.

Answer 57

There have been practical applications of this study. For example, it has been found that doctors tend to "over-remember" poor health practices in obese patients compared to other patients (Madey and Ondrus, 1999). It suggests that stigmatised patients suffer more from an illusory correlation bias than non-stigmatized patients. (H+G) Practical applications to real life stereotypes Difficult to test due to it being a mental process, other factors like social identity salience difficult to control

Answer 58

may affect the way people think about us (prejudice) and treat us (discrimination) may affect how we think about ourselves

Answer 59

the fear that you will confirm a negative stereotype about a group that you belong to When people are faced with a stereotype threat, they often get nervous and perform worse, thus confirming the stereotype and leading to a self-fulfilling prophecy

Answer 60

when an individual internalises stereotypes, which leads to a change in behaviour that confirms the stereotype

Answer 61

to see how stereotype threat affects test performance in African Americans

Answer 62

114 black and white undergraduates

Answer 63

(1) race of the participant (2) test descriptors- test of intellectual ability and test of problem solving skills

Answer 64

performance on the test

Answer 65

participants given a standardised test of verbal ability

Answer 66

African Americans who believed it was a test of their ability did worse than the white participants. However, when they believed it was a test of problem solving, they did just as well

Answer 67

stereotype threat reduces test performance

Answer 68

Reliability= high, all results were consistent (replicated), standardised test of verbal ability Applications= changes in the education system e.g. sets, job interviews, workplace (ethics, race), promotions, media- change stereotypes Validity= control, not a difference in ability so it must be stereotype threat, 4th experiment had a race questionnaire, verbal scores from SATs were taken to ensure they were all within the norm of verbal performance Ethics= 👍they were debriefed The study made use of an independent samples design. Verbal scores from participants' SATs were collected prior to the study in order to make sure that they were all within the norm of verbal performance. In this way, participant variability was minimised. However, a matched-pairs design may have been a better approach.

Answer 69

Generalisability= low as only uni students (used to tests), more influenced by stereotypes, BUT this stereotype is mostly affecting this age group, ecological validity- education Ethics= 👎reinforces stereotype The sample was made up of Stanford University students, so it may not be representative and thus difficult to generalise the findings. Although there is a difference between the two average scores, it does not necessarily mean that the participants experienced stereotype threat. Their salience about their racial identity and their levels of stress during the exam were not measured in this first variation of the experiment. Later variations of the experiment showed, however, that this was most probably the case. Only students were used, who may be more salient of stereotypes about intelligence compared to other ages

Answer 70

To determine whether the way a sport is framed would affect the performance of members of different social groups.

Answer 71

White athletes African American athletes (control group)

Answer 72

PPS told that they were going to be tested on a golf-related activity which was either described as: 1) Reflecting "factors correlated w/ natural athletic ability" (high stereotype threat) → White athletes tend to feel that their athletic ability is not "natural", therefore, is a stereotype threat. 2) Reflecting "factors correlated w/ general sports performance" (low stereotype threat). - PPS were allowed to practise for as long as they liked b/f the task.

Answer 73

White PPS practised significantly less in the high threat compared w/ the low threat condition. AA did not show any difference in both conditions White athletes did, however, perform worse when the task was framed as a diagnostic of the athlete's "sports intelligence".

Answer 74

The findings suggest that one effect of stereotype threat is reduced effort in an attempt to offer psychological protection by providing an explanation for failure (self-handicapping). It is believed that such "self-handicapping" can offer psychological protection by providing an explanation for failure even while undermining performance. This reduced effort demonstrates the negative consequences of stereotypes on performance even when not addressed explicitly.

Answer 75

Natural task and setting- high ecological validity

Answer 76

Could be socially sensitive research because it highlights stereotypes and could imply that certain groups might not try as hard

Answer 77

Hard to test as it is a mental process, other factors (confounding variables) e.g. stress may be involved and affect results Vague theory → based on the idea that people usually use superficial criteria to form stereotypes and once knows of it, it affects them Evidence: Steele and Aronson 1995, replicable and not artificial Applications to educational settings e.g. sets, work space Hard to test, measure and quantify Variables are highly subjective and open to interpretation Based on common sense → we affect and are affected by others’ attitudes towards us Research is inconsistent → doesn’t work for all stereotypes and all groups

sociocultural approach: individual and the group Flashcards

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