Sociological theories Flashcards
(95 cards)
1
Q
what do sociological theories argue
A
social factors play a part in crime
2
Q
what are the 3 types of structural theories
A
1.subcultural
2.strain
3.functionalism
3
Q
what do structural theories focus on
A
structure of society and how it it organised
they look at how equal or unequal society is, what holds it together and what causes conflict
4
Q
when was Durkheims functionalist theory researched
A
1858-1917
5
Q
what is the key point of durkheims functionalist theory
A
crime is inevitable because in every society individuals are inadequately socialised and likely to deviate.
society also contains many subcultures, each with different values, so shared rules of behaviour becomes less clear
(anomie)
6
Q
what is anomie (durkheim)
A
normlessness
7
Q
what do functionalists theories argue
A
society is a stable structure based on shared norms, values and beliefs about right and wrong
produces social solidarity or integration, where all members feel they belong to the same unit
most people will conform to society’s shared norms and do not deviate
8
Q
according to Durkheim what are the 4 functions of crime
A
1.boundary maintenance (crime produces a reaction that unites society reminding them of right + wrong)
2.social change ( for society to progress, individuals with new ideas must challenge existing norms and values, this at first will be seen as deviance)
3.safety valve (crimes act as a safety valve - Davis eg: prostitution acts to release men’s sexual frustration)
4.warning light (deviance indicates that an institution isn’t functioning properly)
9
Q
name some functions of crime shown in the media (durkeim)
A
-Boundary maintenance: George Flloyd/ MeToo
-Social change: homosexual law reform
-Safety valve: prostitution
-Warning light: Jack the Ripper, Yorkshire Ripper
10
Q
what is the key argument of Merton’s strain theory
A
-the root cause of crime lies in the unequal structure of society
-American society values “money success” as the goal ->should be achieved through legitimate means such as hard work
-BLOCKED OPPURTUNITIES creates strain between goal and society CAUSING CRIME
11
Q
according to merton, what are blocked oppurtunites
A
not everyone has the chance of achieving success legitimately because society is unequal, opportunities for working class often blocked by poverty or inadequate schools
12
Q
according to merton, what do blocked opportunites create
A
strain between goal and society
13
Q
according to merton, what is a conformist
A
individuals who achieve goals legitimately
14
Q
according to merton, what are the 4 possible deviant ways to adapt the strain
A
- Innavation (accept goal but find illegal ways of achieving it by committing utilitarian crimes)
- Ritualism (give up striving for success)
- Retreatism (dropouts who reject both goal and means eg: vagrants)
4.Rebellion (reject existing goals and means by replacing them with new ones with the aim of changing society eg:political radicals)
15
Q
who created the subcultural theory
A
Cohen
16
Q
who created the functionalist theory
A
Durkheim
17
Q
who created the strain theory
A
Merton
18
Q
summarise the key point of Cohen’s subcultural theory
A
-subcultures emerge because they are denied status in society
-working-class boys strove to emulate middle-class values and aspirations but lacked the means to achieve success
-led to status frustration
-leading to the rejection of socially acceptable values
-individual delinquents for deliquent subcultures
-creates a hierarchy with positive rewards to those who are most deviant
-can lead to anti-social behaviour + crime
19
Q
what does cohen see subcultural deviance as a group response to?
A
failure
20
Q
what types of crime does Cohen’s theory focus on
A
non-utilitarian crimes
21
Q
what are utilitarian crimes
A
crimes with financial gain
eg: White Collar Crimes
22
Q
what are non-utlitarian crimes
A
crimes with NO financial gain
eg: vandalism
23
Q
what are the 3 subculutres identified by Cloward and Ohlin
A
-Criminal subculture
-Conflict subculture
-Retreatist subculture
24
Q
what is the criminal subculture
A
-Socialise young people into criminal activity
-crime is carried out for practical purposes (eg: theft)
-develops in stable working-class areas where there is an established pattern of crime
25
what is the conflict subculture
-emerges in socially disorganised areas where there is a high population turnover (lack of community)
-prevents the formation of stable adult criminal subcultures
-little social cohesion
26
what is the retreatist subculutre
-those who fail to gain access to other subcultures
-emerge among lower-class youths who fail to succeed in mainstream society & in crime and gang cultures
-this results in escapsim through drug/alcohol addiction, financed by petty theft, shoplifting and prostitution
27
what is interactionalism
-interactions with others based on meanings or labels
-eg: "criminal" is a label that some people may attach to others in their interactions with one another
-"crime" and "criminal" are social constructs- meaning we create through social interactions
28
who created the labelling theory
becker
29
what is the key argument of the labelling theory
no act is criminal or deviant in itself
only becomes so when we create rules/labels and apply them to others
30
what do interactionalists argue about differential enforcement of the law
(labelling theory)
-social control agencies (eg: police) label certain groups as criminal. this results in differential enforcement
31
what did Piliavin and Briar find regarding differential enforcement of the law (labelling theory)
police decisions to arrest were based on stereotypical ideas based on dress, gender, class, time and place
32
what did cicourel find about differential enforcement of the law (labelling theory)
police use typifications of the typical deliquents
33
STATS: differential enforcement of the law
-2020/21 all stop + searches (where ethnicity is known) were conducted in London, involving a HIGHER proportion of persons from minority ethnic groups compared to those from UK
-Black suspects had the highest proportion of arrests that resulted in stop + search : 23%
-In 2020, 40% of white defendants remained in custody compared to 51% of chinese/ other and 49% black defendants
34
what does Edwin lemert argue about labelling
labelling is the cause of crime + deviance
by labelling someone as deviant, society encourages them to become more so
he explains this by distinguishing between primary and secondary deviance
35
what is primary deviance (labelling)
involves acts that have not publicly been labelled
often trivial acts
36
what is secondary deviance (labelling)
-results from labelling
-people treat the offender solely in terms of the label
-> this label becomes a master status eg: thief may override father
37
what is a self-fulfilling prophecy
-the offender is rejected from society and forced into the company of other criminals, joining a deviant subculture
38
explain why Prison is an example of a self-fulfilling prophecy
-offender is excluded from society and placed with others who conform to the criminal identity
-this is a self-fulfilling prophecy as the individual has now become the label and as a result offending may occur
39
why do interactionalists reject the use of crime stats compiled by the police
-stats measure what the police do rather than what the criminals do
-eg: if the police stereotype working-class males as typical criminals, they will spend more time pursuing this group
-this causes the stats to be full of working-class males
-> their stats are therefore a social construction
40
who created marxism
karl marx
41
what is marxism
-structural theory
-argues that the unequal structure of capitalist society shapes people's behaviour
-capitalist society is divided into: Bourgeoisie and the Proletariat
-all institutions of capitalist society work to maintain this inequality and exploitation
-for marxists, the law and its enforcement is a means to keep the working class in its place
42
what are the 3 elements of marxists view of crime
1. capitalism causes crime
2. making and enforcing the law
3. idealogical functions of crime and the law
43
why do marxists believe that capitalism is criminogenic (4)
1. exploitation of the working class drives people into poverty, meaning crime is the only way to survive
2. capitalism pushes consumer goods at people through advertising, resulting in utilitarian crimes to obtain them
3. inequality causes feelings of alienation, resulting in non-utilitarian crimes
4. capitalism is a dog-eat-dog system and profit motive promotes greed -> encourages capitalists to commit corporate crime
44
what does criminogenic mean
crime causing
45
why do marxists see law making and enforcement of the law as serving the interest of the capitalist class
Law making: Chambliss argues the laws are made to protect the property of the rich
Selective law enforcement: marxists believe law is enforced selectively against the working class
-> White Collar Crimes are less likely to be prosecuted: 3/200 companies who had broken safety laws had been prosecuted
46
why do marxists argue that ideas about crime and law are an ideaology
-selective enforcement makes it look as if crime is the fault of the working class: results in division of the classes
-shifts the attention away from much more serious ruling class crimes
-some laws benefit workers to a limited expense
-these ideas encourage the working class to accept capitalism instead of replacing it with a more equal society
47
what is the bourgeoisie
ruling capital class, owns means of production
48
what is the proletariat
working class
capitalist exploits to make profit
49
how do right realists see crime
- growing problem
-mainly concerned with practical solutions to reduce crime
-in their view the best way to do so is through control and punishment
50
what marxist view do right realists reject
poverty is the result of crime
51
right realists argue that crime is a product of 3 factors, name them?
-biological differences
-inadequate socialisation
-offending is a rational choice
52
tell me about right realists view on biological differences
-according to Wilson and Herrestein, biological differences make some individuals more likely to commit crime
-personality traits associated with criminality such as aggressiveness, risk taking- or low intelligence are innate (inborn)
53
why do right realists believe that inadquate socialisation causes crime
-effective socialisation reduces the chances of offending by teaching self-control and corrective values
-right realists see the nuclear family as the best agency of socialisation
54
according to murray what is the nuclear family
(right realism)
(inadeqaute socialisation)
-being undermined by generous welfare benefits
-this has led to a steady rise in welfare-dependant lone parents
-> fathers no longer need to remain at home and take responsibility as the state does this for them
55
what does murray argue about the underclass
(right realism, inadequate socialisation)
-welfare dependency is creating an "underclass" who fail to socialise children
-absent fathers mean boys lack discipline + a role model
-> As a result boys turn to delinquent role models through street gangs- gaining status through crime
56
what do right realists think about offending is a rational choice
- RCT (rational choice theory) assumes we are rational beings with free will
-deciding to commit a crime is a choice based on rational calculation of the consequences: weighing risks against rewards
57
why do right realists argue that the crime rate is high
perceived costs of crime are low
58
tell me about Felsons routine activity theory (right realism)
-argues that for a crime to occur, 3 factors are necessary
1.motivated offender
2.suitable target
3.absence of a capable guardian
59
what is displacement (right realism)
-crime doesn't decline it just moves
eg: if RCT is correct, offenders may act rationally and just move ->displacement
60
what do left realists see as the root cause of crime
inequality in capitalist society
61
what do left realists argue about the main victims and crime rates
-main victims are disadvantaged groups
-crime rates are higher in working class areas with high levels of unemployment and deprivation
62
how do left realists propose to reduce crime
by making society fairer and more equal
63
according to left realists (Lea and Young) what are the 3 causes of crime
1. marginalisation
2.relative deprivation
3.subculture
64
why do left realists argue that marginalisation is one of the causes of crime
(with the example of unemployed youths)
-marginalised groups lack organisations to represent their interests + lack clearly defined goals
-eg: unemployed youth are highly marginalised
-> workers have clear goals and organisations whereas jobless youths don't -> have a sense of powerlessness, frustration and resentment of injustice which they express through crime
65
why do left realists argue that relative deprivation is a cause of crime
RD= how deprived or badly off someone feels in relation to others
-Lea and Young argue that 2 factors are increasing people's sense of RD
1.media continually advertise material possesions, promoting "culture hooked on brands"
2. society is becoming more unequal due to cuts in benefits, unemployment, job insecurity and low pay
-> due to this unfairness some resort to crime as they cannot afford the lifestyle portrayed in the media
66
what is relative deprivation downwards
(left realism)
people who are better off feel resentment against those who are actually worse off
-> may explain hate crimes against powerless groups eg: asylum seekers
67
why do left realists argue that subculture is a cause of crime
-criminal subcultures share society's materialistic goals but because of legitimate opportunities are blocked, they resort to crime
-inner city youths may fins they are denied access to well paid jobs (because of decriminalisation or poor education) -> crime becomes an alternative method of achieving the consumer goods
68
true or false, surveillance theories are about the causes not control
FALSE
about controlling crime not the causes
69
what do surveillance theories involve
-monitoring people to control crime
-look at methods by which surveillance is carried out
70
who are the theorists for left realism
Lea and Young
71
who are the theorists for right realism
Wilson and Herrnstein
72
who created the panopticon
foucault
73
what does foucault argue in his panopticon theory
-in modern society we are increasingly controlled through self-surveillance
-> through what he calls "DISCIPLINARY POWER"
- he illustrated this by reference to a prison design
74
tell me about the panopticon prison design
-prisoners cells are visible to the guards from a central viewing point but prisoners cannot see the guards
-> not knowing if they are being watched, the prisoners in turn behave
75
what effect did the panopticon have on surveillance
turned into self-surveillance and discipline becomes self-discipline
76
what is synoptic surveillance
-surveillance from below
-> everyone watches everyone
eg: motorists monitor others with dash cams
77
who created synoptic surveillance
mathiesen
78
tell me about actuarial justice and profiling
(surveillance theory)
-actuarial refers to the calculations of risks
-FEELEY and SIMON see this as a new form of surveillance
-AIM= to predict and prevent future offending
-uses statistical info to reduce crime by compiling profiles of likely offenders
79
what is a strength of durkheims theory
-first to realise that crime can have positive functions for society
80
what are 2 limitations of durkheims theory
-claims society requires a certain amount of deviance to function but offers no way of showing how much of it is right
-while crime may be functional for some, it is not functional for victims
81
what are 2 strengths of mertons strain theory
-shows how both normal and deviant behaviour arise from the same goals
-explains patterns shown in official stats: most crime is property crime, because society values wealth so highly; working-class crime rates are higher because they have less opportunity to gain wealth
82
what are 3 limitations of merton's strain theory
-merton ignores crimes of wealthy and over-predicts the amount of working-class crime
-sees deviance solely as an individual response, ignoring deviance
-merton focuses on utilitarian crimes, ignoring crimes with no economic motive
83
what are 2 strengths of subcultural theories
-theories show how subcultures perform a function for their members by offering solutions to the problem of failing to achieve mainstream goals legitimately
-CLOWARD and OHLIN show how different types of neighbourhoods gives raise to different illegitimate opportunities and different subcultures
84
what are 3 limitations of subcultural theories
-ignore crimes of the wealthy
-assume everyone starts with mainstream goals and turn to a subculture when they fail to achieve them -> not all people start with the same goals
-actual subcultures are not as clear-cut as CLOWARD and OHLIN claim -> some show characteristics of all 3 subcultures
85
what are 3 strengths of interactionalism and the labelling theory
-LT shows law is not a set of fixed rules to be taken for granted, but something whose construction we need to explain
- shifts focus onto how the police create crime by applying labels based on stereotypes of their "typical criminals"
-shows that attempts to control deviance can trigger a deviance amplification spiral -> creating more deviance
86
what are 5 limitations of interactionalism and labelling theory
-wrongly implies that once someone is labelled, a deviant career is inevitable (DETERMINISM)
-emphasis on negative effects of labelling gives offenders a "victim status" ignoring the real victim
-fails to explain why people commit primary deviance, before being labelled
-doesn't explain where power to label comes from
-fails to explain why labels are applied to certain groups but not others
87
what are 2 strengths of marxism
-shows poverty and inequality can cause working-class crime + how capitalism promotes greed and encourages upper-class crime
-shows how both law making and law enforcement are biased against the working class and in favour of the powerful
88
what are 3 limitations of marxism
-focuses on class and largely ignores the relationship between crime and other inequalities such as gender + ethnicity
-over predicts the amount of working-class crime
-not all capitalist societies have high crime rates
89
what are 4 strengths of right realism
-several studies support RCT -> reetig gave students a scenario of an opportunity to commit a crime -> he found the degree of punishment was determined whether they chose to commit a crime
-feldman found that people make rational decisions if the rewards were high and risks low
-bennett and wright interviewd convicted burglars -> considered reward and risk. (risk was most important factor)
-may explain oppurtunistic petty crimes (eg: theft)
90
what are 3 limitations of right realism
-rettig and feldman studies were experiments= results may not apply to real offenders
-bennett and wright studied unsuccessful burglars, we don't know if successful ones think the same way
-not all crimes are the result of rational decisions, violent crimes are often impuslive -> offenders under the influence may be unlikely to calculate risks and rewards
91
what are 2 strengths of left realism
-draws attention to the importance of poverty, inequality and RD as the underlying structural causes of crime
-draws attention to reality of street crime and its effects, especially on victims from deprived groups
92
what are 3 limitations of left realism
-henry and milovanovic argue that left realism accepts the authorites' definition of crime as just being the street crimes of the poor
-over-predicts amount of working class crime
-fcuses on high-crime inner-city areas which gives an unrepresentative view and makes crime appear greater than it is
93
what are 2 strengths of surveillance theories
-foucault's work has stimulated research into surveillance and disciplinary power- especially into the idea of an electronic panopticon
-researches have identified other forms of suveillance, including actuarial justice + profiling
94
what are 3 limitations of surveillance theories
-foucalt exxaggerates the extent of control
-may not change people's behaviour as foucault claims
-studies show that CCTV may fail to prevent crime because offenders often take no notice of it
95
what are 3 general criticisms of sociological theories
-underlying cause: sociologists disagree about the cause of crime
-over-prediction: don't explain why not every individual who is deprived or suffering blocked opportunities commits a crime
-biological + psychological factors: sociological theories neglect the factors that may explain why 1 individual commits crime whole another person in exactly the same social position does not
