sociology Flashcards
(92 cards)
1
Q
what is sociology
A
is the scientific study of social life, social change, and social causes and consequences of human behavior. Sociologists examine how society both shapes and is shaped by individuals, small groups of people, organizations, national societies, and global social networks.
2
Q
what are the levels of analysis
A
Micro: interpersonal, local organisations (people interacting).
Meso: organisations and institutions, ethnic groups within a nation (board of education)
macro: nations, global community (policy and laws governing education, world literacy programs)
3
Q
social fact:
A
Durkheim
- ways of acting, thinking and feeling external to the individual.
eg. customs, habits, language, conventions
- social forces in our environment that influence us, but we cannot control
4
Q
who defines social fact
A
Durkheim
5
Q
sociological imagination
A
“Distinction between the personal troubles of milieu (someone’s social environment) and the public issues of social structure” - Mills
6
Q
sociological imagination trouble and issue
A
A trouble is a private matter: values cherished by an individual
An issues is a public matter: some value cherished by publics
7
Q
How is the social world examined
A
Empirically validated evidence, facts, and information are confirmed through systematic testing using the five senses. sometimes enhanced by scientific instruments.
Allowing evidence to shape our understanding rather than relying on preconceived ideas.
8
Q
what are theories important
A
theories help create research questions and make sense of gathered information, with a reciprocal relationship between theory and research.
9
Q
types of studies
A
- cause and effect (iv on dv)
- observational study, secondary data analysis, content analysis, and experiments
- quantitative study: numerical form (questionnaires, census)
- qualitative data: non-numerical, semistructured interviews, observational studies
10
Q
how to enhance confidence in findings
A
triangulation (method, data, researcher)
11
Q
rational choice theory
A
humans are mostly self-centred and self-interest-driven in their behaviour. Humans weigh cost-benefit in making decisions. Every interaction involves exchanges involving rewards and penalties.
MICRO-MESO LEVEL
12
Q
structural-functional theory
A
institutions
- manifest functions: planned outcomes of interactions, social organisations, or institutions
-latent functions: unplanned or unintended consequences
- dysfunctions are those actions that undermine the stability or equilibrium of society
FOCUSES ON MACRO LEVEL
13
Q
conflict theory
A
social relations are the result of constant struggle between social groups.
conflict is inevitable and bring about social change and renewal
MACRO LEVEL.
Emphasis on:
Inequality:
Social structures do not promote the functioning of the whole system, but favors some more than others
Power and hierarchy:
Power in unevenly distributed
Dominant group always tries to maintain positions at the expense of the dominant groups and tries to improve their position.
14
Q
critiques on conflict theory
A
-one-sided focus on conflict: a blind spot for consensus and harmony
- one-sided focus for stability: blind spot for stability
- reductionist: reduction of social phenomena as conflict in society
15
Q
symbolic interaction
A
Central idea: social reality is created by human interactions by usage of symbols (words, gestures, language)
16
Q
perspective, theory, model
A
perspective: paradigm, way of seing, an approach. eg surrealism
theory: composition of ideas, rules or principles, around a certain themes to understand, describe or explain certain iddues
model: simplified representation of some aspects of the real world.
17
Q
critiques of functionalism:
A
-one-sided emphasis on consensus: blind spot for conflict, power, and inequality
- one-sided focus on stability: blind spot for change
- teleological: perceived effects are understood as goals, while “society” is not a conscious actor with needs
- reductionist: reduction of social phenomena to their role in the functioning of the whole society
18
Q
why is meaning-making important (symbolic interaction)
A
- social life as continuous sensemaking process
- social life meaning-in-the-making
- meaning emerges from symbols on which we interact
- meanings are not static
- people act on the basis of meaning attributed to a situation
19
Q
Thomas Theorema
A
“if men define situations as real, they become real in their consequences.”.
eg. gender norms: if we believe that gender norms are real (were raised with them), we will follow them.
20
Q
self fulfilling prophecy
A
- false definition of the situation which elicits behaviour that causes the original false definition to become true.
- false thing + real consequences –> real thing
- stereotypes: eg, blue eyed vs brown eyes intelligence experiment
21
Q
3 assumptions of symbolic interactionism
A
- meaning and meaning-making are crucial: others neglect the role of meaning in the formation of behaviour.
- meaning arises in social interactions: not intrinsic objects or results of psychological processes but social interactions
- meanings are a part of interpretive processes: the actor selects, checks, suspends, regroups, and transforms meaning in the light of the situation.
22
Q
critiques of symbolic interaction
A
- emphasis on individual situations can make theory formation difficult
- blind spot for social inequality and power differences by focusing mainly on the macro level
blind spot for larger (macro) economics, cultural and social context
23
Q
social interactionism: dramaturgical perspective
A
Erving Goffman: Roles, role taking.
24
Q
Impression management
A
an attempt to influence the perspective of other people about a person, object or event by regulating and controlling information in a social interaction
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Looking-glass self
Cooley: People create their identity (self) based on how others see them.
Self as a social product, the result of a reflexive process based on interpretations and internalisation of others
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Smith (rational choice theory)
- the pursuit of self-interest serves the collective welfare (wealth of nations)
- divisions of labour as a source of prosperity: if everyone dies with what they are good at and can earn a lot with it, this leads to collective prosperity. This; acting in one's own interests leads to positive collective outcomes.
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exchange theory (rational choice theory)
the more often/valuable the stimulus, the more rewarding, the more likely one will continue this activity.
Author: Homans
Eg: being asked on a date. If you feel that the benefits of going on the date outweigh the costs (there are more pros than cons), you will say yes. Conversely, if the costs outweigh the benefits (more cons than pros), you'll likely to say no
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utilitarianism
Locke, Bentham & Smith.
focuses on deciding what is right and wrong based on outcomes.
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transaction and exchange
if men have insufficient resources, if no satisfactory alternatives are available they cannot use coercive force and if their needs are pressing, a person or group who can supply benefits that meet these needs, attain power over them
BLAU.
e.g., crime as a rational choice
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criticism for rational choice
prisoners dilemma:
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criticisms of rational choice
- too individualistic: too less eye for social structures that influence agency
- costs and benefits can only be understood afterwards
-people are not always rational: "plausible when told in abstract and ridiculous when put into claims about specific people and actions"- Bruce
- blind spot for emotional, traditional and affective reasoning practices
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Identity Goffman
roles and stigmas:
- dramaturgical perspective: investigation of social interaction as theatrical performance.
- presentation of the self: individual effort to create specific impressions in the minds of others
- the interaction order: what people do in the presence of others.
happens by:
- roles, role-taking
-frontstage and backstage
-impressions management
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social identity
Prejudice
Stereotype
Social stigma: a powerfully negative social label that radically changes a person's self concept and social identity. Three categories
The stigmatised: those who bear the stigma
The normal: those who don't bear the stigma
The wise: those among the normals who are accepted by the stigmatised as understanding and accepting their conditions
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charles cooley
The self always lies outside your-self
You cannot see yourself, your POV of yourself is always through something (a mirror that can distort it)
People create their identity on the basis of others
Self as a social product
Social identity
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Social behaviour: George Herbert
Practices are not instinctive but interpretive: external observable practices are related to internal meaning-making experiences
36
Mead
self= I + Me
self= I (subject) + Me (the self as object, the society in myself to which the I responds)
Social experience is the interplay of the I and the Me. our actions are spontaneous yet guided by how others respond to us
The I and me can also converge
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social stratification
how individuals and groups are ranked in society based on access to valued resources.
A person's social class, determined by their family, influences their daily life (where they live, shop, attend school, etc.).
Social class affects opportunities and life choices.
Society’s culture (rules, values, beliefs) legitimises the stratification system.
Valued resources differ across types of societies:
Agricultural societies value land and animals.
Industrial societies value machinery and occupational skills.
Postindustrial societies value education, technology, and control of information.
The criteria for ranking people depend on a society's history, geography, level of development, and political philosophy.
Those with power (from wealth, education, race, etc.) maintain their position through laws, customs, ideologies, and sometimes force.
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micro-level prestige and influence
Individuals are given respect or prestige due to factors like family background, personality, skills, or possessions (e.g., clothing, toys).
Stratification is reflected in the distribution of property, power, and prestige.
Cultural capital includes knowledge, skills, language, and values that grant status.
Social capital refers to networks and connections with influential people.
Personal traits (leadership, confidence, attractiveness) and ascribed traits (gender, ethnicity) affect social and cultural capital.
Interactions with meso-level organisations shape how individual traits influence social standing.
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Meso level access to resources
Meso-level institutions (family, education, religion, economy, health care) provide access to key resources.
Family socialisation influences our self-image, social status, and access to education and jobs.
Schools judge and treat children based on social status, reflected in language and manners.
Educational experiences affect future access to prestigious jobs and social status in the stratification hierarchy.
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Macro-Level Factors Influencing Stratification:
The global economic position of a nation impacts individual opportunities within that nation.
Example: Haiti, one of the poorest countries, lacks technology, resources, and infrastructure, limiting opportunities for success.
Environmental degradation and natural disasters (earthquakes, floods) worsen the situation.
International aid has led to some progress, but political instability and weak infrastructure slow improvements.
Societies and nations are stratified globally, and individuals experience the world differently based on their country’s position.
Stratification is a pervasive force that sociologists study to understand its functioning and impact on individuals and societies.
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rational choice theory: delayed gratification:
(enduring short-term sacrifices for long-term gains) can lead to upward mobility.
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Max Weber’s Contribution:
three Ps—property, power, and prestige—as determinants of social class.
Identified five social classes: capitalists, managers, small-business owners, workers, and the underclass.
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Evolutionary Theory (Gerhard Lenski):
Combines elements of structural-functional and conflict theories.
Key ideas:
People cooperate to survive, but conflicts over resources occur.
Power determines who controls surplus resources.
Inequality increases with technological development, peaking in advanced industrial societies.
Surplus wealth can lead to less inequality if it’s spread across society.
Excessive inequality can harm societal motivation and productivity.
44
double conciousness
the world-view of people who simultaneously hold two apparently inconsistent sets of belifs
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roles
the behaviour expected of an individual who occupies a given social position or status
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identity
how individuals or groups see and define themselves and how other individual groups see and define them
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the self
a persons distinct sense of identity
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colour line
colour segregation
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socialisation
the process through which an individual adapts to the distinctive norms and values of society in which they live.
Lifelong process of learning to become a member of the social world, beginning at birth and continuing until death
Family, education, religion and ither institutions
3 main elements:
Human biological potential
Culture
Individual experiences
Nature vs nurture or both working together
Development of the self: looking glass self and role-taking
Socialisation stars ar birth but throughout the life cycle
Children
Adolescence
Education
Labour market
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group identity
individuals collective awareness of the social distinction of their group
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gender
cultural and social characteristics attributed to men and women
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social identy
Macionis et al. show that identity is derived from the Latin word idem, meaning “the same”
Identity is about belonging somewhere, about what you have in common with others, but also what makes you different from others
Identity provides meaning, a form of categorisation and difference-making
By defining our identity, we create similarities with some and differences with others. Shows the importance of social identity.
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society
groups and organisations (including bureaucracies and large organisations). Within structure: activities and processes
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Evolution of society over time and variation across the globe:
(Durkheim → would see members of society as needed for survival)
Mechanical solidarity: in premodern society
Social cohesion and integration based on similarity of individuals in the group, including shared beliefs, values and emotional ties between members of the group
Organic solidarity: social cohesion
Based on division and labour, with each member playing a highly specialised role in the society and each person being dependent on others due to interdependent, interrelated tasks
Hunter-gatherer societies: people rely on the vegetation and animals occurring naturally in their habitat to sustain life. Focus on kinship and reciprocity
Herding and horticultural society:
Herding: have food-processing strategies based in domestication of animals whose care is the central focus of their activities.
Horticultural societies: those in which the food-producing strategy is based on domestication of plants, using digging sticks and wooden hoes to cultivate small gardens.
Agricultural societies: rely on raising crops for food but make use of technological advances such as plow, irrigation,animals and fertilisation to cultivate over and over in the same land
Industrial society: rely primarily on mechanised production resulting in greater division of labour based on expertise
Postindustrial societies: those that have moved from human labour and manufacturing to automated production and service jobs, largely processing information.
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culture
All people share a culture with others in their society:
Provision of rules, patterns and expectations in society
Culture evolves other time and is adaptive:
What is normal then, is not necessarily normal
The creation of culture is going and cumulative
Builds on existing culture, new challenges and opportunities
The transmission of culture in the features that most separates from other animals
Transmissions mediated by language
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ethnocentrism
tendency to view one's own group and its cultural expectations as right, proper, and superior to others
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cultural relativism
requires setting aside cultural and personal beliefs and prejudices to understand another group or society through the members and using its own community standards
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components of culture: things and thoughts
Things (material culture) and thoughts (non-material culture) make up our culture → guidelines for our lives
Material culture: includes all the human-made objects we can see and tough, all the artifacts of a group of people
Non material culture: includes the thoughts, languages, beliefs, values and attitudes that make up much of our culture.
Values: shared judgements of what is desirable or undesirable, what is good a¡or bad and what is right or wrong
Beliefs: are the ideas we hold about life, about the way society works and about where we fit into this world.
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ideal vs real culture
Ideal culture: practices, beliefs, and values regarded as most desirable is society and consciously taught to children
Real culture: the way things are actually done
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norms
rules of behaviour shared by members of a society and rooted in a value system 2 categories:
Folkways: costumes and usually desirable behaviours - not strictly enforced (eg, responding politely)
Mores: are norms that most members observe because they have great moral significance in a society (eg, being faithful in a marriage)
Taboos: are a strong
Laws: norms formally encoded by those holdings political powers in society
Sanctions: reinforce norms through rewards and penalties (formal and informal ones)
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subcultures
Smaller than the nation but large enough to support people throughout the life span (emo culture)
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counter culture
A group with expectations and values that contrast sharply with the dominant values of a particular society (old order amish)
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national culture
Common values and beliefs that tie citizens of a nation together
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agents of socialisation
Transmitters of culture - the people, the institutions, the organisations that help to define our identity and teach us how to thrive in our social world.
Peer groups
Formal agents of socialisation
Informal agents of socialisation
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social interactions and networks
Social interactions: two or more persons purposefully relation to each others, can be both formal and informal
Social status: social position within society - we act differently when we are in a different position
Achieved status: chose or earned by decisions made. Sometimes personal ability
Ascribed status: often assigned at birth, does not change during lifetime
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roles
Roles: the expected behaviours, rights, obligations, responsibilities and privileges assigned to a social status
Role strain: tension among roles, within a status
Role conflict: conflict between roles of two or more social statuses.
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anomie
The state of normlessness that occurs when the rules for behaviours in society break down under extreme stress from rapid social change or conflict
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groups
Units involving two or more people who interact because they share common interests, experiences
Primary (close relationships) secondary ( formal relationships)
In-group vs out-group
Increasing rationalisation (max webber): the attempt to maximise efficiency by creating rules and procedures focused solely and accomplishing goals
Formal organisations: composed of complex secondary groups delibaratively formed to pursue and achieve certain goals
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beurocracies
Specific types of very large formal organisation that have the purpose of maximise efficiency, characterised by set relationships among participants, clearly laid-out procedures and rules and the pursuit of stated goals.
Characteristics:
Divisions of labour based on technical competence
Administrative hierarchy
Formal rules and regulations
Impersonal relationships
Emphasis on rationality and efficiency to reach goals
Issues: alienation enemy of professionalism, oligarchy, goal displacement
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deviance
Deviance: Violation of social norms
Socially constructed
Dependent on time and context
Individuals status or group may be defined as deviant
Deviance can be functional of society (activists)
Crime: deviant actions for which there are formal penalties imposed by the government eg, fines, jails, prison sentence
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Strain theory as deviance typology
Merton:
The scope and the character of deviance depend on how well society makes cultural goals (e.g., financial success) available and accessible by providing institutionalised means (schooling, job opportunities) to achieve them
Therefore, it is about the 'strain' between a culture's emphasis on wealth and limited opportunities to acquire this
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multilayered stratification
Micro level: prestige and influence
Social capital: connections or networks with people who have an influence
Cultural capital: knowledge, skills, language mastery, style of dress, and values that provide a person with access to a particular status in society
Individual characteristics: leadership skills, engaging personality, etc. influence social cultural capital.
Meso level: access to resources
Macro-level: influencing stratification. The same earthquake can affect different societies in a different way.
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theoretical explanations of stratification: Macro level
Understand how daily interactions and decisions can impact social positions
Symbolic interaction theory: people learn what is expected in a social group through interactions with others
Conspicuous consumption (verblem): to explain the spending of money on and the inquiring of luxury commodities specifically as a public display of economic power→ attaining or of maintaining a given social status.
Rational choice theory: on the way people make decisions based on their own self-interest - costs & benefits depending on social position.
Delayed gratification: being able to delay rewards until later
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theoretical explanations of stratification: Meso & Macro
Structural-functional theory: social stratification in societies is inevitable; necessary part of the social world
Davis and Moore: rewards given to people in various occupations:
Value of positions
Preparation requires talent, time and money
Unequal distribution of rewards
Conflict theory: stratification is outcome of struggles for dominance and scarce resources, with some individuals in society taking advantage
Marx: haves and have-nots; means of productions; later also non-economic factors
Class consciousness: a shared awareness that they, a class, have interests that differ from those others
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Individual social status
Individual life changes: individual opportunities, demanding on achieved and ascribed statuses in society
Education, health, social condition, life expectancy
Individual lifestyle; attitudes, values, behaviour patterns, and the aspects of your place in the world, as shaped by socialisation:
Attitudes towards achievement, religious membership, political involvement, female life and child, rearing patterns
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social mobility
The extent of individual movement up or down in the class system, changing ones social position in society; especially relative to one's parents social position in society
Intergenerational mobility: compared to parents
Intragenerational mobility: across lifetime
Horizontal mobility: same level in stratification
Vertical mobility: up/down hierarchy
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causes of social mobility
Availability of positions:
Changes in structure labour market and professional population
Status acquisition:
Pure meritocracy (based on own achievements)
Hereditary socio-economic position parents
Social-psychological factors: eg.parental support
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social mobility across systems
Meritocracy: positions would be allocated in a social group or organisation according to individuals abilities and credentials
Ascribed vs. achieved stratification
Absolute poverty: not meeting the poverty line
Relative poverty: when ones income falls below the poverty line, resulting in an inadequate standard of living relative to others in the individuals country
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theories POV of prisons and inequality
Functionalism POV:
Prisons are institutions, part of the society, it has a function.
Deviance theory: the minorities are not involved that much in society as they are excluded so they don't feel the need to follow the rules
Conflict approach POV:
This case shows the conflict between races in US society. It can be seen in wrongful incarcerations.
Made to continue oppression to minorities
Symbolic interaction POV:
Racial stereotypes and labels affect the treatment of blacks and hispanics in the justice system and contributes to their over-representation in the justice system
Rational choice POV:
Self interest of the whites to maintain a higher status over minorities
Many crimes are done for the own benefit of the person
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How can you explain criminal behaviour of people from each POV:
Rational choice theory:
Cost benefit: jobs are scarce for minorities, illegal jobs have more benefit. If you don't have a lot to lose, you are more likely to cause crimes.
Transaction theory: weighing cost benefit can make crime a rational endeavour.
Symbolic interaction:
People commit crimes because of labelling, stereotypes. To live up to the labels. Self fulfilling prophecy.
Socialisation, this behaviour is taught through socialisation.
Functionalism:
Functionalism talks about a stable society; crime happens when this stability is not achieved
Prisons are an institution with a function in society
Deviance theory: the minorities are not involved that much in society as they are excluded so they don't feel the need to follow the rules
Conflict:
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crime
Deviant actions for which there are formal penalties imposed by the government eg. fines, jails, prison sentences
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Typology: Strain theory/theory of deviance
MERTON:
Social strain typology is based upon two criteria:
a person’s motivations or adherence to cultural goals;
a person’s belief in how to attain her goals.
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Intitutions examples
Family: meets certain needs in almost all societies
Families as an institution: behaviour of thousands of people which taken as a whole form a social structure
Unique set of raising children and interactions, but part of a community with many families → part of a national set of patterned behaviours.
No clear guidance who carries out which roles within the family; but often association with specific status (eg. partner, parent, child)
Institutions provides a blueprint
Organised, patterned and enduring sets of social structures:
Refer to a complex set of groups or organisations, statuses within those groups, and norms of conduct that guide people's behaviour
At a local level: attending religions service, school; part of more encompassing structures, education and religion
That provide guidelines for behaviour:
In each culture, locality, different ways to behave oneself in an institution
Help each society meet its basic survival needs:
Otherwise society collapses or people die
Although institutions operate mostly at the meso-level, they also act to integrate micro- and macro-level of society
Collective needs of society are coherence and stability
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Theoretical perspectives on family:
Theoretical perspectives on family:
Symbolic interaction:
Social construction of reality + definition of a situation
Meaning of concepts such as partner, parenting, family, etc + role gender?
Rational choice theory:
Cost-benefit and reciprocity; satisfaction of our needs
See partner choice but also number of children
Structural-functional theory
Why do all societies have families?
Functions of family: sexual regulation and reproduction and replacement
Socialization, emotional support and protection, status assignment, economic support (unit of production), changing family function
Conflict theory:
Conflict is natural and inevitable
Struggle for power and control
Feminist theory
Need for feminist perspective to understand family dynamics
Women and men occupy different places in society
Construction of reality within broader macro-level
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Mate selection (FAMILY INSTITUTIONS)
Arranged marriages vs free-choice marriages
Marriage rules:
Exogamy: norms governing the choice of a mate that require individuals to marry outside of their immediate group
All societies have incest taboos
Endogamy:
Require individuals to marry inside certain human boundaries, whatever the societal members see as protecting the homogeneity of the group.
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Authority in marrige
Decision- making
Who does the housework?
Hochschild “first-shift” vs “second shift”
Meso-level: Family as an institution:
Types of marriages:
Monogamy
Polygamy: polygyny (man with more than one wife) and polyandry (woman with more than one husband)
Depends on society, eg. division of land ect, individual resources. Resources to sustain sucha a large family
Polyamory: more lovers/partners
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education (INSTITUTIONS)
Parents and families
Peer cultures
Teachers and school staff (eg. Role feminization teachers? Teacher expectations
School compositions
Hidden curriculum - reproduction of class?
School climates
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RELIGION INSTITUTION
Components:
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Politics and economics INSITUTIONS
Power: the ability of a person or group to realise its own will in group action, even against resistance of others who disagree
Two pew arenas of power: the nation state and economy
Power processes: at all levels (micro, meso, macro)
laws , treaties, allocatio of economic resources
Power distribution in society
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power privilege in our social world:
Authority: power that is considered legitimate and rightful by those subject to it.
Illegitimate vs legitimate power
3 ways in which leaders can gain authority:
Traditional authority: passed through generations
Charismatic authority: power based on claim of extraordinary, personal characteristics
Rational-legal authority: power given by proving your merit
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purposes of political and economic institutions
To maintain social control
To serve as an arbiter in disputes
To protect citizens
To represent the group in relation with other groups or societies
To make plans for the future of a group
To provide for the needs of the citizens
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types of suicide (WEBER)
Egoistic: lack of social integration, people that are social outcasts
altruistic: people are too involved in the group, to fulfil an obligation of the group
Anomic suicide is caused by the lack of social regulation and it occurs during high levels of stress and frustration.
Fatalistic suicide occurs when individuals are kept under tight regulation. (eg slaves)
