South Africa Flashcards
(256 cards)
1
Q
What date was Apartheid set up between?
A
1948-54
2
Q
What already existed long before the Apartheid laws?
A
- Segregation and so-called ‘petty apartheid’
- country was already one where very few non-whites had the vote
- Movement of blacks was controlled and restricted
3
Q
What were the most significant laws between 1900-1947(without date)?
A
Mines and Works Act
Natives Land Act
Natives Urban Areas Act
Industrial Conciliation Act
Representation of the Natives Act
4
Q
When was the Mines and Works Act and what did it do?
A
1911
Reserved skilled ( well paying ) jobs for whites
5
Q
When was the Natives Land Act and what did it do?
A
1913
Restricted black ownership of the (most fertile) land
6
Q
When was the Natives Urban Areas Act and what did it do?
A
1923
Africans working unskilled jobs in mines or industry must live in townships on the outskirts of the city, and leave the area once their contracts expired
7
Q
When was the Industrial Conciliation Act and what did it do?
A
1924
Denied black trade unions or workers’ rights
8
Q
When was the Representation of the Natives Act and what did it do?
A
1936
Removed voting rights from 10,000 blacks living in the cape who met the property qualification
9
Q
What was the pattern with the Apartheid laws between 1900-1947 and an example?
A
They all involve euphemisms
Example: Representation of the Natives Act is all about removing what little representation there is
10
Q
What happened in the election of 1948?
A
Victory of the nationalist party led by Dr.D.F Malan
11
Q
What year did the National Party win?
A
1948
12
Q
What were the main reasons for the Nationalist Victory?
A
- Fear of job losses
- White afrikaners outnumbered white English speaking voters by 3 to 2 and tended to be poorer and to feel more threatened
- National party’s policy on race
- Smuts favoured continuing war time relaxation
- South African electoral system
- Many Afrikaners belief that smuts was out of touch and a traitor to race: some who had been attracted by Nazi racial policy in the 1930s
- Many of the older generation had died out: older generation were loyal to smuts because of his Boer war leadership and role in ww1
- Many Afrikaners distrusted his likely successor J.H Hofmeyer
13
Q
Why did Smuts favouring continuing war time relaxation lead to the national party victory?
A
Smuts favoured continuing war time relaxation which allowed black workers in white areas to fill job vacancies – alarmed many whites who were attracted by the NP electoral slogan ‘Apartheid’ (separateness)
14
Q
Why did Afrikaners fear job loss
A
during ww2 labour shortages led to relaxation of employment settlement laws
- many whites feared for their jobs and status in peacetime thinking economic equality would lead to social equality even though blacks were paid less than whites
15
Q
What was the national parties policy on race and why was it favoured more?
A
in post war atmosphere recovery of Afrikaner nationalism NP race policy contrasted favourably with the united party
16
Q
Why did south africa’s electoral system allow for national party to win?
A
South African electoral system: gave 25% weighting to rural constituencies than the urban ones which benefited NP because more of their supporters lived in the countryside
17
Q
What did Afrikaners call the fear of jobs in peacetime due to economic equality?
A
- Afrikaner nationalists called it the svart gevaar ( i.e ‘Black Peril)
18
Q
What did Malan do after he won his narrow victory of 1948?
A
He had to turn his vague promises into specific policies
First: appoint a white academic (Professor F.R Tomlinson) to chair a commission of investigation into how a system of Apartheid might be made to work – took 4 years before submitting findings
19
Q
What was the conclusion of Malan’s feasibility study?
A
Apartheid could work but only if government was prepared to pay the cost as a systematic policy of separateness would be expensive
20
Q
What were the apartheid laws introduced by Malan first known as?
A
‘First phase’ or ‘baaskap’(boss ship) white supremacy
21
Q
What were the ‘first phase’ of apartheid laws without dates?
A
Population registration Act
Prohibitions on mixed marriages
Group Areas Act
Pass system
Creation of reserves
Separate amenities Act
Bantu Education Act
22
Q
When was the population registration Act and what did it do?
A
1950
Ensured that the coloured population of the cape was not designated as white – anxious that light skinned children of mixed marriages might be able to pass as white
Designates ethnic categories – white + black + coloured + Indian (added later)
Identity cards issued which identified the individual races
23
Q
What was the significance of the population registration act?
A
Significance:
Helped make the system of apartheid possible
It greatly tightened the governments control over the population
If government knew which individual belonged to which race it could, if necessary, relocate them
24
Q
How many people were relocated under the Population registration Act
A
one-tenth of the population between 1951 and 1986
25
How did the apartheid regime view the population registration act?
Viewed by the regime as necessary tool of control
26
Why was the population registration act significant at ground level?
At ground level had vital consequences even aside from the hugely significant one – forcible removal as the identity card designated a persons race and established on the spot what rights that person as entitled to in any situation
27
When and what were the prohibitions on mixed marriages acts that enforced no mixed marriages?
Prohibition of Mixed marriages Act 1949
Immortality Act 1950
28
What was significant about the prohibition on mixed marriages act
Both whites and non-whites could be imprisoned for breaking the relevant laws but sentences were usually harsher for non-whites
29
When was the Groups Area Act and what did it do and lead to?
1950
Zoned South Africa into white and non white areas, leading to forced removal of about 3.5 million between 1951 and 1986
30
What was the regimes reason for the group area act and what proved the opposite?
Regime reason: impossible for the races to live together – though seemed to be proving opposite as mixed-race community of Sophia Town (suburb in Johannesburg) alarmed regime
31
What was the significance of the Groups Area act?
Most significant piece of early apartheid legislation and had the most devastating consequences
32
What were the consequences of the groups area act?
devastating
- mixed race areas in city suburbs ended
- blacks ruthlessly driven into bogus homelands or ‘Bantustans’ sometimes property their ancestors had bought before the Native Land Act
- blacks had to commute several hours a day to work from the ‘homelands’ and living conditions were worse and rent was usually higher than they had been paying
- Indians and coloured's could not be sent to the ‘homelands’ but suffered misery of forced relocation to often worse conditions than the Cape Town suburbs which they had lived
33
What was the pass system and when?
1952
Different types of pass laws restricting black movement had existed but apartheid regime 1952 decided to do away with variety and create a a nationwide, standardised system instead (abolished regional pass laws)
34
What were the key laws that made the pass system possible?
Abolition of Passes and Consolidation of Documents Act
Native Laws Amendment Act
35
What was the consequence of the Native laws Amendment Act?
– had effect of making black women subject to pass laws for the first time so black women took to carry their child with them at all times because if caught breaking pass law they could be deported to a homeland without the baby
36
What was the regimes intent with the pass system and what did it allow them to do?
Intended to establish a system of identification and movement
- allowed the regime to decide where and how blacks lived and limit their status as much as possible to that of ‘guest workers’ in white areas apart from ‘insiders’
– blacks could not remain in the area which they travelled for more than 70 hour after their pass expired, could not live permanently there unless they had been born there or lived there for fifteen years or workers with the same employment for ten years
37
What were the impacts of the pass system?
Significant negative effects on the black population
- Criminal offence not to carry the bulky document
- Process of obtaining ‘reference book’ was a humiliating experience
- Pass law was a hated symbol
Pass laws were hard to obey
Resentment of the pass laws
38
What is the symbolic significance of the pass laws?
Pass law was a hated symbol of the degree of control and repressive power the apartheid regime enjoyed
Process of obtaining ‘reference book’ was a humiliating experience which caused lasting bitterness among blacks
39
What did the resentment of pass laws lead to(EVENT)?
led to both the ANC and the PAC to organise demonstrations against them
PAC demonstrations led to the ‘Sharpeville Massacre’ 1960 led to many black deaths
40
Why were pass laws hard to obey and what was the consequence of this?
– too easy for black to be technically somewhere where they shouldn’t – lead to one million arrest in the early 1950s and over 800,000 convictions
41
What are Reserves and what did they do?
earlier form of bantustans
Reserves already existed but amount of land allotted to them had to be increased if blacks were to be driven out of the cities and relocated
Government money (if still not enough) had to be pumped into the reserves, to create a viable agriculture economy that would keep blacks out of designated white spaces
42
When was the Separate Amenities Act?
1953
43
What did the separate amenities act symbolise?
Symbolised so-called ‘petty apartheid’
44
Why was the the separate amenities act created?
Apartheids response to defeat in the courts
the defeat on court: South Africa had a proud tradition of an independent judiciary and a judge ruled that segregation was unlawful unless public amenities were of the same quality for different races
To defeat ruling regime passed separate amenities act which asserted as a principle that public amenities did not need to be equal for different races
45
What did the separate amenities act do ?
asserted as a principle that public amenities did not need to be equal for different races
enforced segregation of public facilities, to reduce to a necessary minimum contact between whites and non-whites
46
Significance of separate amenities act?
It’s full significance cannot be grasped without viewing it in the context of repeated apartheid laws such as Immortality Act and the Mixed Marriages Act which sought to minimise racial contact
Separate Amenities Act often compared to ‘ Jim Crow’ laws enacted in former Confederate states in the USA
47
What is the difference between separate amenities act and Jim crow laws
Difference: Apartheid regime saw no need to maintain a legal fiction that public amenities were equal under apartheid non-white facilities were separate and markedly inferior
48
When was the separate amenities act removed?
final vestiges of this system were not removed until just before the election of 1994
49
When was the Sharpeville Massacre?
1960
50
What can the Separate Amenities Act be compared to?
‘ Jim Crow’ laws enacted in former Confederate states in the USA
51
When was the Bantu Education Act and what did it do(in practice)?
1953
Brought education of blacks under the direct control of the Apartheid regime
52
What was the intention of the regime to introduce the Bantu Education Act?
intended to reinforce the Apartheid system with blacks being taught little more than they needed to know to service the unskilled labour market run by whites
53
What was significant about the Bantu self education act and evidence?
- For the first time all education for blacks involved teaching racially motivated curriculum that discriminated against the pupils it sought to educate
- difference in funding between white and black and white education was immense evidence: outside classroom black schools very few had playing fields and classrooms were run down little money for textbook (even racist ones) and teachers were poorly trained
54
What were the consequences of the Bantu self education act?
Consequence major – curriculum was patronising and paternalistic in nature with black children being taught an infantilised image of themselves as dependent on a white father-figure – old racist stereotypes reinforced in textbooks
Important long term consequence: unintended consequence in history: politicised thousands of blacks who academic or not realised Verwoerd was keeping them uneducated to limit their life chances in South Africa e.g Soweto
Second: young blacks became more politicised over time because far more achieved basic primary that had in the past (Historians disagree on this)
55
What were the alternatives to the Bantu education act?
Church schools had to close in accordance with the law (no longer received government funding) however … some remained as ‘cultural clubs’ to stay open but Verwoerd denied them funding, even forcing them to close.
Few unofficial black schools opened in garages and homes with some enjoying striking success but apartheid regime promptly banned unofficial schooling of blacks
56
What did the ANC do to counter the Bantu self education act?
ANC declared a boycott of government- run schools for blacks but Verwoerd hit back announcing if there was no demand for black schools they would be closed which outmanoeuvred ANC leadership as it would be seen as responsible for denying children any education at all
57
What was the opposition and resistance to the National Government and the suppression of it (1948-1954)?
ANC
58
What did the ANC admit in 1948 and do after?
admitted they had not paid enough attention to the 1948 election (only when Oliver Tambo was spat on next day at work)
After: adjusted to new reality
59
Why was effective opposition and resistance to the Nationalist Government difficult?
The regime had anticipated opposition so put measures to place to deal with it
60
What was the date of the suppression of the communism act and what did it do?
Suppression of Communism Act of 1950
Allowed government to interpret any opposition as communist and to arrest and imprison opponents
61
When did the government make the most extensive use of the ‘banning order’ and what did it do?
1948 and 1954
‘Banning order’ which prevented opposition groups from contacting each other for five years – even amounted to house arrests
62
When was the Public Safety Act and what did it do?
1953
Allowed government to declare a state of emergency for twelve months(and renew it)
63
When was the Criminal Law Amendment Act and what did it do?
1953
Stated anyone with someone who committed a crime would be assumed to be equally guilty
64
When are the years described as opposition and resistance to the Nationalist government and the suppression of this opposition?
1948 – 1954
65
What did different groups realise they had to do and what were these groups?
Groups: ANC, South African Indian Congress and the Coloured People’s Congress
Realised: they needed to coordinate their actions to improve chances of success
66
What had the ANC done by 1949?
ANC through its Youth League led by Oliver Tambo, Nelson Mandela and Walter Sisulu had committed to a Basic Policy and a Programme of Action involving mass and direct action to oppose the regime and support African nationalism and decolonisation through the continent which were gaining momentum
67
When and what was the most significant example of opposition and resistance to the NP?
1952 Defiance Campaign
68
What happened during the defiance campaign(stages)?
A non-violent protest designed to work in two stages
Stage1: deliberate law-breaking on a large scale – authorities could not cope with e.g. purposefully travelling without passes
Stage 2: nationwide strikes and protests = tens of thousands participation
69
What was a result of the defiance campaign for ANC and what did they realise?
Membership rose by 100,000
Realised needed millions participating to make the defiance campaign really effective
70
What really happened due to the defiance campaign?
Leaders like Mandela were arrested and banned from speaking public from 1953 onwards
Regime passed more civil disobedience laws
71
What form did resistance to the Bantu Education Act 1953 take?
ANC: set up schools of their own but after initial striking success the regime banned this
organised boycott of state school but proved counterproductive as Verwoerd brutally stated if no demand for schools they would shut
Churches: renamed their schools to ‘cultural clubs’ to try evading educational restrictions but the state denied them funding forcing most to close
72
When was the Group Areas Act and what was it described as and what did it do?
1950
Described as the Cornerstone of segregation policy
Prevented inter-racial house sales – promoting all-white residential areas
Designated residential areas on the basis of race
73
What did the group areas act spark and from who?
Sparked mass protest especially among groups most affected – Indian workers on the east coast
74
What happened in 1954 significant to opposition against the nationalist government?
In a syllabus statement opposition group took the decision to draft and approve a Freedom Charter, asserting universal rights such as the right to live in non-racial fully democratic state
75
Why was the freedom charter significant?
Most significant act of opposition in the long-term because the principles enshrined in the freedom charter remained timeless and relevant and were successfully appealed to in changing political contexts
76
When are the years described as the ‘growth’ of Apartheid?
1955-1959
77
What was ‘grand’ apartheid?
Attempt to ensure the permanence of white rule by expanding the policy and removing blacks from white areas and relocating them in the ‘homelands’
78
Who was the development of apartheid under how can he be described?
Dr. Hendrik Verwoerd
Highly intelligent and utterly convinced he knew what was best as had been a professor of psychology
79
Who won the election of 1958?
Verwoerd became prime minister
80
What did Verwoerd do and his significance in developing apartheid?
Responsible for so-called ‘grand’ apartheid
81
What were the causes of the Bantu Self-Government Act?
Desire of Afrikaner elite led by Verwoerd to drastically reduce government expenditure on reserve/homelands - as homelands could eventually be declared independent
Desire to make segregation of their society permanent
82
When was the Bantu Self-Government Act and what did it do?
1959
Set up eight self-governing homelands in which black Africans were to be citizens
83
What were the consequences of the Bantu Self-Government Act(relocated blacks)?
Made apartheid regime able to remove blacks who had returned to their ‘ancestral homelands’ from official statistics - thus claim that Afrikaners and English-speaking whites were the largest ethnic group in South Africa
Crime and corruption stemming from black leaders of homelands appointed by regime was a major problem
84
What was the consequence of the bantu self government act for blacks who evaded relocation?
Effect to blacks who evaded relocation: poverty as government had drastically cut spending on blacks within white-majority areas on grounds that blacks were back in the homelands e.g almost no housing built for blacks between 1967 and 1976 even apartheid regime statistics showed 80% poverty in homelands and concluded they had been an economic failure
85
What were the economic consequences of the Bantu self government act?
Funding for the homelands for areas were not economically viable and was limited – lead to poverty, poor housing, poor educational standards
86
What is the historical significance of the Bantu self government act?
Historical significance – one of keys to Verwoerd's ‘grand Apartheid’ as basis of his policy of creating ‘Bantustans’
87
Why are the years 1955-78 important in resisting apartheid?
Development of effective resistance to apartheid including Mandela and ANC, Steve Biko and Black consciousness
88
Who was Steve Biko?
Most talented historically significant leader that attempted to fill the vacuum created by the imprisonment of most ANC leaders and Mandela and PAC
89
What did Steve Biko do?
Joined the National Union of South African Students while studying medicine but left in protest when it followed practices of segregation
Co founded black SASO and Black People’s convention to promote black consciousness in townships and rural areas
90
What did Black Consciousness promote?
Promoted liberation but stressed the responsibility of each individual black to achieve it for themselves
Stressed the virtues of patience and non-violence seeking confrontation with regime from a position of weakness which lead to i.e Sharpeville massacre
90
Why did Biko believe in Black Consciousness?
Was drawn to concept of ‘black consciousness’ and convinced more and more blacks that they should improve their life through their own (non-violent) efforts
91
What did the regime initially think about black consciousness and what changed?
They initially liked the sound as thought it would help establish the principle of racial segregation
Change – realised Biko did not envisage blacks being limited to their ‘homelands’ so their attitude hardened
92
Why was Biko popular?
Younger – born in 1946 compared to Mandela born in 1918
his intelligence, eloquence and charisma he appealed to younger generations of blacks who felt frustrated with the lack of progress made by ANC and the PAC
Also had become to distrust the idea of multiracialism promoted by the ANC
93
What happened as a result of the regime's opposition to Biko include dates form 1973-1977?
1973 Biko was banned from public speaking – went underground during next four years – arrested 29 times for defying the ban
1975 charged with terrorism – like Mandela used his trial to support his ideas
1977 arrested and beaten to death
94
What happened to SASO in 1975?
Declared illegal
Went underground
95
When did Steve Biko die and how?
1977 – beaten to death by security forces
96
Significance of Biko death?
Became a martyr of resistance to the apartheid regime
Death lead to violent protests in South Africa and ruthless crackdown on these protests by the regime
UN and US government questioned circumstances of his death
97
What was Steve Biko’s greatest limitation and impact?
Exclusion of whites from his movement – no sign by his death he intended to abandon this position
Impact: placed a low ceiling on what he could achieve politically because western governments could never have promoted or negotiated with a racially exclusive opposition leader – why Mandela committed to racial inclusivity and why he prevailed
98
What did other forms of civil disobedience other than Black Consciousness include and when?
Anti-pass demonstrations
Sharpeville Massacre1960
Spear of the nation 1961
Soweto uprising 1976
99
Why were pass laws significant in terms of opposition to apartheid?
One of most hated symbols of Apartheid
100
When was the anti-pass law protest that happened in Pretoria and how many participants?
1956 against extension of pass system to women
Led to 20,000 women marching
101
What was significant about anti-pass law protests by 1959?
Organised protests against pass laws had become a weapon that was used not just against apartheid regime but also in the bitter struggle between ANC and PAC for legitimacy and support from South African blacks
102
What did competition between the ANC and PAC lead to?
Sharpeville Massacre
103
Had pass laws been protested before their systemisation and when?
Protests against local pass laws in 1913
104
Why were anti-pass laws protest counterproductive?
If government made the drawing of pension conditional on showing a pass, money could be denied to the poor and elderly if they had burned their passes
105
When was the Sharpeville Massacre?
1960
106
What were the consequences of the Sharpeville Massacre internationally ?
– images shocked global opinion and led to demands to dismantle the apartheid system
Investors withdrew money – led to a short-term economic crisis
107
What were the domestic consequences of the Sharpeville massacre?
Emigration exceeded immigration likely back to Britain – whites not convinced government was fully in control
Demand for firearms among whites increased
Sharpeville sparked more protest including PAC led protest in the Cape which involved 30,000 people which later convinced the regime to declare a state of emergency
Mass arrests (at least 10,000)
108
What were the consequences of the Sharpeville massacre for the ANC and PAC?
They got outlawed
Reason ANC and PAC created their militant wings – spear of the nation and poqo
109
Why did the Sharpeville massacre occur?
It was the response of the local security forces to a protest organised by Robert Sobukwe’s PAC against the pass laws
Sobukwe had been disillusioned with the ANC with its peaceful protest and racial inclusivity
110
What happened during the Sharpeville Massacre?
Crowd of thousands surrounded the jail and baited the police which was not exclusively white for hours
Exactly what happened not clear but most probably police los their nerve and opened fire
69 protesters were killed and 180 wounded
111
When was the spear of the Nation founded and why(cause and reason)?
1961
Reason:In the aftermath of the Sharpeville massacre though not the only reason
Causes: ANC leadership’s collective appreciation that peaceful protest alone would not bring about change – this was a hard truth which had been dramatised to the ANC repeatedly through the failure of peaceful protests as the regime was ruthless and cunning
ANC ended up hurting the very people it was trying to help as ANC tactics were counterproductive e.g drawing pensions based of passes after mass pass burning in protests
Under pressure from it rank-and-file members to take a more militant approach because the security forces never hesitated to use violence
112
What was the Spear of the Nation and what did they do?
(MK) name given to the militant wing of the ANC
113
What did Mandela argue for the spear of the nation and what was his role?
He co-founded MK
He argued ANC had no choice if the government answered peaceful protest with violence including killing and not prosecuting killers
114
What was MK's strategy in the short term and long term?
Short term: sabotage government buildings and power stations including blowing them up – these gestures were symbolic and fatalities could be avoided – but inability of regime to avoid destruction was to be made clear
Long term: training for guerrilla war in the event regime refused to reform- military action against the regime was only ever intended as a last result- mr hall said be clear about this
115
What did Mr Hall say you have to be clear about with training for guerrilla warfare?
military action against the regime was only ever intended as a last result
116
What happened to Mandela as a result of the spear of the nation founding?
He went underground and adopted the pseudonym of the ‘black pimpernel’
Arrested in 1962 by the regime but was given a lighter sentence as regime had not connected him with the MK
117
What is also true about POQO?
Achieved almost nothing in the 1960s in terms of hurting the regime or forcing political change
118
What did the Spear of the nation achieve?
Almost nothing in the 1960s in terms of hurting the regime or forcing political change
119
What is the real significance of the spear of the nation?
In the 1960s when nine of its leaders and one of its plans were seized at the lilies-leaf Farm in 1963 the link between MK and Mandela was made and the arrests led to the Rivonia Trials and the imprisonment of Mandela and others on Robben Island
Sequence of events heavily influenced in the long-term dismantling of apartheid
120
What happened in Soweto 1976(how many people)?
Schoolchildren in Soweto (south west largest township in Johannesburg)
Official casualty figures is 575 dead + 2,000 injured
121
What was the ‘trigger’ cause of the Soweto riots?
The regimes insistence that half of school lessons should be taught in Afrikaans
From black perspective – Afrikaans was the language of the oppressor and proof that the regime thought blacks were only fit for no more than the minimum education needed to do menial tasks for whites (i.e understand and obey their commands)
122
What were the other causes of the Soweto riots?
Quality of education was poor and class sizes were enormous
– delivering lessons in a language most students did not understand i.e math was considered the last straw which was incomprehensible math or none as there was a shortage of math teachers who spoke English let alone Afrikaans
Unemployment was high and the quality of housing (already poor) was getting worse
– regime expected to relocate many blacks to the Transkei ‘Bantustan’ which was about to be declared as ‘independent’ so therefore even fewer houses than before blacks in Soweto feared this relocation would be even worse
Effect of political activism of South African Students’ movement which had worked hard and successfully to influence Soweto youth with its Black Consciousness ideology influenced Soweto youth
123
What did the Soweto riots involve?
Involved strikes, mass demonstrations rioting and attempts to destroy government and other buildings
Security forces responded with tear gas and bullets
Students killed innocent whites unluckily enough to be in the wrong place at the wrong time
Casualty figures were high – 150 dead over 4,000
124
What was the significance of the Soweto riots and why does it continue to be debated?
International perceptions of the Apartheid regime (already negative) hardened even further as the brutality of the security forces was televised night after night on tv programmes
Photo of dying 12-year-old Hector Peterson being carried through Soweto became another iconic image of the evil of Apartheid
125
Positive impacts of the soweto riots?
Though apartheids regime initial response was to crush the revolts with repressive action e.g Biko then reflected on SOWETO and decided that repression alone would not enable the system to survive – some degree of reform was needed
co-operation between blacks and the coloureds
Radicalisation of many of the young people had led to the lasting political consequences because many gravitated towards the ANC both to its peaceful wing and more militant wing MK
influx of new recruits did much to rejuvenate the organisation ANC
126
What were the negative impacts of the soweto riots?
Riots lead to limitations in other parts of South Africa
127
When was the Treason Trials(chain of events)?
1956 -61
1955 police surrounded the meeting at which the freedom Charter was being read and accepted
1956 all 156 attendees were arrested (including most of the ANC leadership group and the leaders of the Indian community) regime tried them for high treason in a trial that dragged on for five years until 1961
From 1957 onwards defendants were gradually released for lack of evidence until only 30 remained
They were tried in 1959 and found ‘not guilty’ in 1961
128
What were the Treason Trials a response to?
Response of the Apartheid regime to the defiance campaign and the freedom charter
129
What happened in the treason trials(result)?
Case against the defendants was weak and the defence lawyers like Sydney Kentridge were skilful
From 1957 onwards defendants were gradually released for lack of evidence until only 30 remained
They were tried in 1959 and found ‘not guilty’ in 1961
Apartheid regime had failed to prove that Mandela and the other defendants had been conspiring to overthrow the state by force to establish a communist state
130
What is the main political consequence of the treason trials for ANC?
Leaders of ANC were so preoccupied trying to defend themselves – left a political vacuum which the newly formed PAC tried to fill
Level practice of Mandela and Tambo collapsed and Mandela’s marriage collapsed
131
What is the other trial and its significance?
Though the treason trial has the grander-sounding name
The rivonia trial is more historically significant + more dangerous for the ANC leadership because the regime was determined to hang them
132
When was the Rivonia trial and chain of events leading up?
In 1963 nine ANC leaders and many hey documents were seized at lilies-leaf farm – security forces elated: a clear link between MK and Mandela was established and plans for an operation code named ‘Mayibuye’ seemed undeniable proof of treason – involved an armed ANC invasion of South Africa from a foreign base
Arrest led to the Rivonia trials - regime chose an Orthodox Jew Percy Yutar as chief prosecutor calculating that he would do his absolute best against the ANC and the Jewish communist on trial + had picked judge Quartus de Wet to maximise its chances of securing a guilty verdict followed by the death sentence
133
What was the regime's reaction to the Rivonia trial?
The regime was disappointed as many of the ANC leaders were lawyers and they knew how to convert the courtroom into political theatre
134
What did Mandela and Sisulu do during the treason trial?
Mandela – exploited the regulation that allowed him to speak without interpretation and deliver a famous four-hour defence of his beliefs and actions and those of the ANC – benefit of the international press as well as domestic
Walter Sisulu– endured five days of cross-examination evading traps set for him and sticking to his argument that ‘operation Mayibuye’ was a last resort not an active plan that the ANC intended to carry out
135
What is significant about south Africa's judiciary
South Africa has a tradition of an independent judiciary – Quartus de Wet found their defendants guilty of sabotage but not high treason accepting their argument that the plan was not active
136
conclusion of treason trial
Quartus de Wet found their defendants guilty of sabotage but not high treason accepting their argument that the plan was not active
137
What happened to Mandela after the treason trial?
Mandela was given a sentence of life (plus five years for his previous offensive) he was transported to Robben Islands
138
What was the significance of the Treason Trials?
In the long term this sequence of events was hugely significant for the dismantling of Apartheid
Verdicts were condemned internationally
The Times editorial spoke for many when it declared the regime to be the real guilty party
139
What were the extent of threats by 1978 to apartheid and why (economic, international, domestic)?
By 1978 the Apartheid regime was in some respect not doing well
Economic – its ability to mine and sell gold at a time of international economic crisis helped it to keep strong
since it had long exiled the imprisoned the key leaders of the ANC PAC and its militant wings in exile did not have resources to threaten it with an armed struggle
The international reaction was complex – in the west the view of ordinary citizens was different to the view of governments who in the Cold War context were more inclined to view South Africa as a bulwark against communism
140
What helped afrikaners cope with the opposition to apartheid?
‘Laager’ mentality among Afrikaners helped the white elite to cope with the [psychological and practical effects of sporting and other boycotts
141
What did the regime feel behind curtains?
Beneath the surface though the regime did not feel itself to be in as strong as a position
it genuinely believed in a communist plot to overthrow the state and therefore felt threatened by threats on South Africa’s borders as a result of decolonisation of Angola and Mozambique allied to internal threats from underground members of movements like the ANC and PAC (which the state believed to be riddled with communists) and the South African Communist Party itself
142
What were the reasons for the reforms of PW Botha?
Botha was convinced like the South African security forces that South Africa faced a “total Onslaught” from communists regimes outside South Africa and from communists within – counter measure was what he and the army called “total strategy”
142
When was PW Botha prime minister and why?
When Johannesburg Voster resigned as Prime Minister in 1978 he was replaced by Botha – sometimes known as ‘the great crocodile’
143
What did the ‘Total Strategy’ involve?
First part – destabilising opposition in neighbouring countries such as Rhodesia and recently decolonised Mozambique and Angola
Second part – limited domestic reforms such as the ending of some forms of ‘petty apartheid’ but without giving up any political power
144
Total strategy laws?
- Mixed marriages act repealed in 1985
- Pass laws abolished in 1986
- Additional relaxation of segregation laws i.e allowing mixed audiences at cinemas and theatres
- Government spending on education for blacks increased
- Blacks with section 10 rights were allowed to buy their own homes
- Trade unions were granted more rights and black workers were allowed to join them
145
What did Botha do concerning Indians and coloureds as well as whites and when?
1983
Announced his intentions to create a tricameral parliament for Indians and coloureds as well as whites
designed to convince foreigners that South Africa was fully democratic in its own way – fooled no one – it was too obvious to everyone that the Indian and coloured part of the government had no real power only the white parliament had power
146
Consequences of Botha reforms for the National party?
Negative in the sense that NP lost significant support among the white community
146
Were blacks involved in the tricameral parliament and significance?
Blacks were to be excluded on the grounds that they had representation in the ‘homelands’
No significance as everyone saw only white part of parliament had power
147
What were Botha’s reforms about and why?
They were more about image than substance as he did not want to change the system – wished to preserve as much of it as possible
148
Consequences of Botha’s reform to coloured South Africans and Indians?
Consequences only positive on surface level as real political power was not conceded
Low turnout in the first election for the new tricameral parliament (20%) bothered to vote proves that Indians and coloureds saw Botha’s reforms for what they were
149
Consequences of Botha’s reforms for black South Africans?
Some blacks benefited to an extent from the legislation but the dice in South African society was still heavily loaded against them in all the areas that really mattered especially political power
Together with the reforms Botha also developed an even more repressive security system
150
What is the United Democratic Front?
The response of opposition groups to Botha’s reforms was to establish what they called UDF
An umbrella term – sheltering beneath the ‘umbrella’ were community groups, religious groups, unions and sporting associates
151
Why could the UDF not be banned?
None of the groups were political parties
152
What did the apartheid regime claim about the UDF and why was this false?
That it was a front for the ANC
While UDF supported the basic principles of the Freedom Charter, the imprisoned ANC leaders could not control or direct its activities and did not always agree with them especially when they resulted in violence
153
How was the UDF cleverly designed and examples where relevant?
It did not have a designated leadership group (reflected on what happened in the past to ANC) so security forces could not remove their leaders and render the UDF ineffective
E.G apartheid regime tried to do this making almost 60 arrests in the first year but the more they tried the more groups sprung up to oppose them beneath the UDF umbrella
154
What was the metaphor of the UDF?
Recurring metaphor- HYDRA (many headed snake)
155
Was the UDF an effective opposition group and example?
UDF proved effective
1984 protest against rent collection sparked open revolt against apartheid rule beginning in the eastern cape and spreading to other areas
156
What did the ANC suffer from between 1978 and 1990?
Between 1978 and 1990 most of ANC key leaders were imprisoned
In the early 1970s membership and influence and declined – attempts to recover were led by Oliver Tambo were only partially successful
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Who is Oliver Tambo and what did he want to do for the ANC?
He was Mandela's old legal partner
ON ONE HAND: wanted to increase membership and to gain international support for the ANC so foreign rulers would come to view ANC as a government in exile
ON THE OTHER HAND: under pressure to prove its ‘relevance’ and ‘effectiveness’ to younger generation who were disillusioned – to do this one major way had to be seen to carry one the armed struggle
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Why was Tambo’s aim contradictory?
In practice the two aims were contradictory to a great extent
The violence repelled major western democracies such as the USA and UK which were lead by right wing figures like Thatcher and Reagan
Endorsement won by countries like east Germany did not help in a Cold War context to gain western endorsement
159
What is the most that can be said about the ANC’s guerrilla bases and activity on South Africa’s borders?
Forced an expensive overreaction from the security forces which was a drain on the regime’s resources
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What was the significance of Mandela during the years 1978-90?
Although he was in prison by late 1970s it was clear to ANC leadership that a phenomenon was taking place
Phenomenon- the world was coming to regard the hard fact of Mandela’s imprisonment as symbolic of the evils of apartheid itself
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What did the phenomenon of Mandela as a symbol create for the ANC and what did it decide?
Presented the ANC with a great political opportunity + great risks
Opportunity – actively direct the world’s attention towards Mandela by means of literature, rallies and even concerts
Risk – might compromise ANC’s principle of collective leadership designed to combat dangers of personality cult rule
Decision – took a calculated risk but paid off as ‘free Mandela’ became a worldwide slogan promoted in countless events most significant Wembley 1988(officially to celebrate Mandela’s 70th birthday) but to really draw global attention to his imprisonment and the evils of the apartheid regime + what it symbolises
162
What was the significance of Mandela’s imprisonment for the regime and evidence?
Global embarrassment to the regime
Offered him his freedom as early as 1985 provided he gave up publicly the armed struggle – he refused
As regime lost confidence it began (while still maintaining its position) to explore possibility of a negotiated solution to the crisis which would allow whites to retain as much of their position as possible
163
What did Mandela do during prison?
Smuggled essays out of prison and worked hard within it to persuade both wardens and younger more radical prisoners to his point of view
Took advantage of his study privileges to learn Afrikaans which helped his personal and political growth by giving him a window into the Afrikaner mind through their language, history and culture
164
What is the significance of Mandela learning Afrikaans in prison?
enabled him to perceive common ground that both blacks and Afrikaners were peoples of resistance to British colonial oppression
165
Why did the regime fear Mandela's prison death and what did they do as a result of this fear?
Even if he died of natural cause regime feared consequences of his death as no one would believe it
Eased his prison conditions
166
When did the regime identify Mandela as and what did they identify?
By 1980s identified Mandela as the opposition figure with whom it could most likely negotiate
Botha met Mandela while he was in prison as did Botha’s successor, de Klerk in 1889
ANC not involved in these talks began to worry that Mandela would betray them
167
What was the situation politically in the townships in the mid 1980s and consequence?
Situation in townships became anarchic (without strong centralised rule)
Townships unrest
168
What was the consequence of the political situation in the town ships?
Consequence : damaged ANC
damaged Apartheid regime – anarchy in townships lead to the incessant showing on news programmes of images of violence and sustained popular defiance of state repression heightened the pariah status of the regime because it seemed to prove that the South African government did not have control or solutions
Township unrest contributed to disinvestment on the part of foreign businesses
169
What does anarchic mean?
(without strong centralised rule)
170
What were the conditions of townships in the mid 1980s?
Bad housing education and life chances
171
How were townships governed decided by the regime?
Regime decided to give black town councils greater control within townships to reduce if not eliminate resentment of (often corrupt) white officials
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What were the consequences of the regime deciding to give townships a black town council?
Consequence of decision: created serious problems without solving any as black councillors even if honest were targeted as collaborators and sometimes murdered
Corrupt black councillors were attacked and the property they bought with corruption funds was symbolically destroyed
Another consequence: emergence of ‘people’s courts’ (score settling by violent young men) – hundred of victims subjected to horrific punishment of Necklacing (placing tire doused with petrol around a victim’s neck and setting it alight)
Violent young men were used to establish personal power bases e.g Winnie Mandela’s ‘Mandela united football club in Soweto most notorious – regime did nothing to stop her in this case as wanted to discredit Mandela’s name
173
How were church leaders opposed to apartheid?
As apartheid became more systemised (due to Verwoerd legislation) multi-faith churches in south africa became more active in opposition to apartheid + more overt and covert forms + also involved domestic and international action in concert with church organisations in other countries
174
How did church opposition take place domestically specific examples?
overt opposition – refusal to implement certain pieces of apartheid legislation that applied to churches – example: 1957, when Verwoerd was minister of Native Affairs the clause Native Laws Amendment preventing blacks from worshiping alongside whites churches resolved to defy this though law was not removed the clause was rarely enforced in practice
175
What were the limitations of overt opposition by churches against apartheid and example?
Overt opposition was hard to sustain because of the Apartheid regime’s response
Example: when Bishop Reeves of the Anglican Church of South Africa asked pointedly what type of bullet had caused such appalling injuries to the victims of the Sharpeville he was deported to the uk
176
Who was Desmond Tutu and his significance(with dates)?
Replaced Bishop Reeves who had been deported to the uk
went on to become the first black Archbishop of Cape Town and a major anti-Apartheid campaigner preaching at Steve Biko’s funeral
1978: won the Noble peace prize of 1984 for sticking to non-violent protest despite the provocation of massacres such as Sharpeville in 1961 and Soweto in 1976
Significance: as a major churchman was his role as a unifying figure especially with most of ANC and PAC leadership in prison it was important for the struggle to have charismatic leaders still at liberty
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Opposition by churches internationally example?
involved setting up initiatives like the setting up of the Multi Faith Committee in 1984 by Anit-Apartheid Movement leader Bishop Huddleston who had developed links with Bishop Desmond Tutu and Frank Chikane
Organisation worked to increase awareness of different faiths and of the evils of apartheid and its consequences
178
Who was Frank Chikane?
Church member whose ordination as a priest was revoked due to his anti-apartheid activity and whom the regime tried to assassinate in 1989 by spreading poisonous chemicals on his clothes
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What is important not to do about the significance of church opposition in apartheid dismantling?
Not to overstate the significance of opposition of church leaders as political, economic and military factors were far more important
180
Why was the church leader's opposition significant?
As the leaders gained and international profile the Christian churches in Britain began to further in their opposition to apartheid eventually calling for disinvestment in the 1980s which they had refused to do in the 1960s and 1970s (change and continuity)
181
Who is the Dutch reformed church and what did they do?
All-white church
Saw it as its duty to provide theological justification for Apartheid by deliberate misreading of the Gospel
182
Who was the biggest Afrikaner resistance group to Botha’s reforms and its leader?
AWB
Eugene TerraBlanche (‘white land’
TerraBlanche was charismatic and an orator able to attract, hold and motivate thousands of followers
183
Why were many white extremists opposed to Botha’s reforms and consequences?
Many feared losing their jobs and their safety if the Apartheid-system were reformed let alone dismantled
Consequence: emergence of AWB
184
When did opposition for Botha’s reforms by whites become clear and identifiable?
Within realm of normal political activity
Clear in 1987 onwards when the NP began to lose by-elections to the Conservative Party which promised not to ‘sell-out’
185
What did some conservatives argue on the issue of reforms?
Some conservatives argued that limited reforms aimed at Indians and Coloureds were counterproductive as they encouraged black power activists to fight for a South Africa in which whites had no power
186
Why was the AWB created and when originally?
In the 1970s as a response to Vorster’s very limited reforms
Aimed to create a volkstaat in which only Afrikaners could be citizens
187
What did the AWB see the ANC as?
A communist organisation
188
What did the AWB do in response to Botha’s reforms?
Recruited several thousand members and actively opposed Botha’s reforms using several tactics such as
neo-nazi style marches and rallies (their symbol resembled the swastika)
+ had a paramilitary wing which represented Hitlers SA (stormtroopers)
+ TerraBlanche had a bodyguard like the SS
Resorted to violence during the later state of emergency
TerraBlanche cunningly targeted poor whites to widen his support base advocating food parcels to the needy
189
What were the reasons for the State of emergency (BOTHAS)?
Botha’s reasons:
South Africa faced an imminent communist attack from outside and within (more of a pretext than genuine)
Townships were ungovernable due to Black nationalist agitators
He calculated that a state of emergency would allow strict censorship of the newspapers television and radio – help restrict information helping Apartheid control news and reduce ongoing negative headlines + reports in foreign press
190
When was the state of emergency and significance ?
1985 Botha declared a partial ‘State of Emergency’ in the Eastern Cape and Pretoria
significance: first since Sharpeville Massacre
1986 partial state of emergency expanded to cover the whole of South Africa
191
What happened in 1986 as a result of the state of emergency(statistics)?
Security forces surrounded townships and went into schools to arrest teenage activists
800 troops deployed
30,000 arrests were made – including students, churchmen, trade unionists and community leaders – arrest warrants were not needed + those arrested could be held indefinitely without trial
Torture practiced
Strict censorship enforced
Organisations like the UDF were banned
Security forces shot demonstrators and assassinated political leaders
43 people were killed
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What were the consequences of the state of emergency short term?
Short-term: a success for Apartheid
- mass arrests weakening opposition groups and forcing their leaders into hiding
- made communication difficult often impossible
- no future for blacks in acts of random political violence in townships
193
What were the consequences of the state of emergency long term?
Long term: harmed Apartheid
- Dramatised to the world that it had no alternative to brute force + no idea how to achieve lasting political settlement that did nothing other than protecting white minority rule
- Apartheid existing ‘ pariah’ status as a state was intensified
- Government failed in its stated aim of restoring law and order to the townships because violence continued
- Funerals of assassinated opposition leaders became political theatre as they were the focus for demonstrations and speeches
- Foreign investors began to pull out large numbers – most serious
194
What can be said overall about the state of emergency?
Both partially and nationally contributed to the collapse of the regime as it gave strong proof that the system had no answers because of the sustained violence and dictatorial repression stimulated domestic and international resistance
195
What were the main forms of international opposition to apartheid?
Boycotts and sanctions
196
What can be said about the impact of sanctions before 1985?
For most of the 1980s economic sanctions which were never complete had limited impact on the apartheid regime
It is true that they were bitterly resented and intensified the isolation + ‘pariah’ status felt by whites AND countries could always find ways round them e.g Israel
197
What can be said about the impact of sanctions from 1985?
However….
From 1985 onward
Attitudes hardened in the west EXAMPLE:
- in US where Congress overrode presidential veto of sanctions on SA
- big US companies and banks beginning to withdraw investment which contributed the the economic crisis which in time played a massive role in forcing the regime to negotiate
198
What was the impact of cultural and sporting boycotts on SA?
Socially significant
Strongly resented by whites as
South Africans love sport and are good at it and longed to compete in the Olympics and other major events to prove their ability and win medals + trophies
Politically significant
Added to white’s frustration over international exclusion
At times dramatised the ridiculousness of racism –
199
example of impact of cultural and sporting boycotts on SA?
example: New Zealand all-Blacks were banned from touring SA in 1967 as the team contained Maoris
BUT
sport-loving white SA public wanted to see their team play the Blacks so in 1970 a tour went ahead declaring the Maoris ‘honorary whites’
200
What are the main reasons(context) for the reforms made by F.W de Klerk(international)?
Internationally:
Main context was the collapse of the Soviet Union and the weakness of regional Marxist groups in Africa by 1989
SO
De Klerk confident communist powers could not now manipulate the ANC and us it against the regime
ALSO
He knew that the Apartheid regime could no longer claim to be a bulwark against communism in the region to secure US support
201
What was the aim and trick of de Klerk’s reforms?
Trick: how far (not) to go with these reforms
Aim: to preserve as much of Afrikaner power and prosperity as possible by reforming the system – de Klerk gambled that the ANC would fragment -> allow Afrikaners to retain much of their power through alliance with socially and politically conservative blacks
201
What were the main reasons for the reforms made by de Klerk domestic?
Domestic
Civil war seemed a real possibility that was to be avoided because numbers would be the most decisive in the end with Black South Africans outnumbering the white
ALSO
De Klerk knew the white elite favoured the sort of political reforms that would promote stability and economic prosperity i.e the sort that would lift sanctions, attract investment and allow wealthy whites to enjoy the benefits of globalisation and to participate in international sports again
ALSO
Knew that white business groups were meeting with ANC in Switzerland and England for talks on a future settlement and had been since 1987 when they met in Senegal
ALSO
Decline in number of whites voting for the NP convinced him that if he did not offer meaningful reform history would move beyond both the National Party and de Klerk
202
When did F.W de Klerk become president?
In 1989 he replaced Botha as leader of the National Party and President of South Africa
203
What was de Klerk determined to do?
Determined to protect Afrikaner interests as Botha did but he was more pragmatic in outlook + more willing to take calculated risks
AND
He was determined not to make the same mistakes Ian Smith had made as leader of Rhodesia when he refused to negotiate with opposition groups so he ended up losing all power with Rhodesia becoming a Marxist state
204
When did de Klerk first promise reforms?
In 1990 during his inaugural address as president he promised to chart a ‘New Course’
IMPORTANT: he publicly committed his government to working towards a new democratic constitution and equal rights
204
What were the reforms made by de Klerk? 8
1. Lifted the ban on the ANC and PAC and the SA communist party
2. Released Mandela whom. He had already met for talks in 1989 and other activists
3. Abolished censorship
4. Abolished death penalty
5. Partially lifted the ‘state of emergency’
6. 1990 repealed the separate amenities act(main legal foundation of ‘petty apartheid’
7. 1991 the population registration Act was repealed by parliament but de Klerk driving force
8. 1991 the Group areas act repealed by parliament but de Klerk key driving force
205
Why were the reforms essential to the repeal of apartheid?
Reforms were basic to repeal of apartheid as the legal basis for ‘petty apartheid’ was repealed as were other key pieces of apartheid legislation
206
When was the repeal of apartheid?
1991
207
What were the consequences of un-banning of political parties?
Un-banning of the ANC and other political parties and the release of Mandela and other political talks
Allowed talks to proceed OPENLY
207
Was apartheid dead by 1991 and evidence?
It was not dead in practice as it were dead on paper
EVIDENCE:
‘State of emergency’ was still partially in force
Apartheid regime still possessed many powers under other pieces of legislation
Security forces were as dangerous off duty as they were on it
White supremacist groups such as AWB refused to accept de Klerk’s reforms and actively tried to undermine them
De Klerk was using resources of the state to maintain white supremacy in practice
208
How did de Klerk understand ‘democracy’ differently and when?
Most of period between 1990 and 1994
De Klerk understood it as ‘power sharing’ in which minority (i.e whites) rights would be protected and in which there would be a weak state with much power being devolved rather than centralised to protect areas such of SA which the whites were concentrated
208
Who were the main important individuals in brining about the end of apartheid and the minor figures?
De Klerk
Nelson Mandela
OTHER:
Joe Slovo
Cyril Ramaphosa
Chief Buthelezi (don’t have to talk about him if don’t have time
208
What is the number of deaths between 1990-94 a measure of?
How hard it was to achieve peaceful dismantling of apartheid between 1990 and 1994 and to bring about a peaceful transition from a racial state to a non-racial state without South Africa erupting into a civil war
209
How many people were killed in political violence between 1990 and 1994?
Fourteen thousand
Journalist Daniel Reed has rugged that the true figure is closer to 60,000
209
Why was the election emotionally and symbolically significant for whites and blacks?
Whites – queuing next to blacks the burden of apartheid lifted
Blacks – act of liberation
209
When was the first free election of South Africa and ow many people voted in it?
In April 1994 with 19 million voting over 4 days
What were the results of the election?
ANC won with 62.5% of the vote to become the ruling party
Mandela became President in a government of national unity and South Africa became a fully democratic non-racial state
NP won 20.5% of the vote ensuring that de Klerk became one of Mandela’s two deputies
Inkatha gained 10.5% ensuring the Zulu chief Buthelezi became a government minister
PAC won only 1.25% the electorate decisively rejected it
210
What was the significance of the 1994 election?
The multiracial election of 1994 was an event of great historical significance for it was the first fully democratic election in the history of South Africa and it looked like it would never happen
An event of great emotional and symbolic significance for both blacks and whites
211
What was significant about the way blacks viewed Mandela during the election?
Most blacks during the election itself(not before or afterwards) gave Mandela most of the credit for it
212
Why was Mandela given the most credit for the election for blacks?
1. Everything he had done to bring it about since his release from prison in 1990 including his role in CODESA talks and influence in preventing armed struggle after the Boiptang Massacre and the murder of Cris Hani
2. His sacrifice during his 27 year incarceration “he went to prison for us” was a comment frequently heard in voting queues
213
What is the importance of de Klerk in dismantling apartheid?
De Klerk achieved his aim to win acceptance at home and abroad as th legal successor to apartheid by following up the Declaration of Intent achieved by CODESA I by showing political skill and courage in 1992 in holding a whites-only referendum on the proposals for transitioning to a multi-party, non-racial, gender inclusive democracy
214
What was the result of de Klerk’s referendum for whites-only and its significance?
He won with 69% of the vote, consolidating his legitimacy within the white community
215
What does CODESA stand for?
Convention for a Democratic South Africa
216
What was de Klerk determined to do and what did this not stop though?
As president of South Africa he was determine to achieve a solution because he had political insight to see that the Afrikaners were doomed without one
However..
Did not stop trying to ensure that black opposition disintegrated
217
What was the negative consequence of de Klerk still trying to disintegrate black opposition?
He played a double game with Mandela and the ANC
218
What was the double game played by de Klerk?
Negotiating in public but using his ‘Third Force’ to promote black-on-black violence in the homelands and to support the Zulu Inkatha Party in its violent struggle against the ANC
219
What did de Klerk do despite playing this double game?
De Klerk did his best to defeat white extremist opponents such as AWB condemning acts of violence publicly
220
What is the significance of de Klerk and Mandela both being lawyers?
They both understood that the new government had to win acceptance at home and abroad as the legal successor to the apartheid regime
What is the importance of Mandela in dismantling apartheid?
- CODESA II talks
- Resisted temptation to resume armed struggle
- ‘Brutal’ effectiveness when toughness was what was needed in dealing with the regime
- Role in preventing civil war
221
What did the CODESA II talks attempt to do?
Attempted to build on the declaration of intent achieved in CODESA I by planning out a constitution for a post-Apartheid South Africa acceptable to all sides
222
Why did the CODESA II talks break down?
Broke down in an atmosphere of mutual mistrust created mainly because of events like the Boiptang Massacre
223
When was the Boiptang Massacre and its significance in causing break downs in CODESA II talks?
1992
Cause of breakdown: 46 ANC supporters murdered by Inkatha with the security forces turning a blind eye
224
When did it seem like that negotiations would fail?
Between 1991 and 1994 there were MOMENTS
225
Who was Mandela under pressure from why and his reaction?
Disillusioned blacks
Cause:wanted him to resume the armed struggle
Reaction: was tempted to do so because of the ‘Third Force’
226
What is significant about Mandelas reaction to pressure to resume the armed struggle?
Mandela had the political maturity and wisdom to rise above it
Resisted the temptation say
227
What is the de Klerk quote about Mandela?
“I needed him; whether I like him or not is irrelevant”
228
When was the idea for the new government announced and what was the idea?
1993
Idea of a Government of National Unity doe five years announced for FIVE YEARS
229
What did Ramaphosa say about Mandela?
Paid tribute to his ‘brutal effectiveness when toughness was needed in dealing with the regime
230
When was there a civil war scare and why?
1993
After the murder of 1993 of Chris Hani by a white right-winger
231
Who was Chris Hani?
Leader of the South Africa communist party
232
What was key to preventing the civil war scare?
Mandela’s prestige and political maturity was key to preventing the civil war scare
233
What did Mandela do after the civil war crisis was over?
He use his increased moral authority to press for an election date
234
When was the election date?
April 1994
235
Who is Joe Slovo and how was he viewed by the regime ?
Jewish activist who had leadership roles in both the MK and the South-African Communist party
Long-term hate-figure for the security forces because of his roles
able ,broad-minded and creative negotiation
236
What is the first significant contributions made by Joe Slovo to dismantle apartheid?
ONE:
In 1990 he publicly supported the ANC’s renunciation of violence
SIGNIFICANCE:
Slovo had more credibility and influence among militant ANC activists than Mandela at the time (also everyone knew that his wife had been murdered using letter bombs by the security force and that he himself had been targeted unsuccessfully)
237
What is the second significant contributions made by Joe Slovo to dismantle apartheid?
TWO + greatest:
In 1992 proposal of ‘sunset clauses’ which guaranteed government employees job security and pension rights for ten years after the transfer of powers
CRUCIAL because 40% of Afrikaners worked for the government and could have done much to obstruct a settlement
238
When was Slovo’s importance shown?
Shown in willingness to accept publicly that the regime had not been defeated and in his success in persuading the ANC leadership to agree to the concessions
239
When did the National party agree to the concessions?
Straight away
240
Who is Cyril Ramaphosa and what were his significant contributions to dismantling apartheid?
Secretary general of the ANC and head of South Africa’s largest trade union the National Union of Mineworkers NUM
- ANC negotiated
How did talks continue after CODESA had broken down again?
Talks between ANC and government continued in secret
Ramaphosa negotiated for the ANC
Rolf Meyer for the government
241
What are Ramaphoasa’s historically significant contributions?
Participated in over 40 meetings using the skills he had honed as a trade union leader to negotiate a settlement acceptable to both the leadership and rank-file on both sides
KEY:
Ramaphosa brokered the agreement that there should be a government of national unity for five years after the transfer of power and that an assembly should have legislative power
CRUCIAL as the ANC was almost certainty going to be the largest power
ALSO he negotiated the compromise that the province might be ruled by parties other than the ruling party IMPORTANT because the ANC leadership had wanted strong central control to prevent the whites and the Zulus from dominating certain regions
242
What is the importance of Chief Buthelezi in dismantling apartheid?
Only significant positive contribution was his last-minute agreement to participate in the elections in 1994 abandoning his separatist’s aims and making it possible for the new state to be a fully unified one AFTER holding out for separatism
243
What did Buthelezi do for most of the period of dismantling apartheid?
For most of 1990-94 Buthelezi and his Inkatha Party were actively unhelpful to the attempt to dismantle the Apartheid regime
At times the Zulu chief claimed leadership over ‘Africans’ as well as Zulus
Militant/Paramilitary section of Inkatha was constantly involved with violence against the ANC an de carried out the Boiptang Massacre (and others like it) UNDERMINED Buthelezi’s credibility
244
What can be said about the year 1990 -94 in dismantling apartheid?
These years were very difficult and a peaceful solution to the crisis was uncertain
245
Who were the two main figure to dismantling apartheid and what did they receive as a measure of their role?
Mandela and de Klerk were the two most important figures in achieving a peaceful solution though they came to hate each other
They accepted the Nobel Peace Prize in 1993 which they were awarded jointly
256
What key pieces of legislation allowed the government to counter opposition?
Suppression of Communism Act
‘Banning order’
Public safety Act
Criminal Law Amendment Act
