South Africa 1948-1994 Flashcards
(46 cards)
1
Q
Election Of 1948
A
- Nationalist Party won election; almost entirely unanticipated by all.
- a few reasons for such were:
- the electorate was overwhelmingly white
- NP won many rural seats, in this way the electoral system worked in their favour
- UP leader (Jan Smuts) was 75, out of touch with the youth, in addition the UP were in internal conflict.
- End of WWII caused SA to undergo huge economic change
- NP policies loosely backed by biblical references; idea that it was god’s will.
2
Q
Tomlinson Report
A
- Professor F.R Tomlinson was appointed by DF Malan to create a working apartheid model.
- Tomlinson wrote a report denoting how Apartheid could logistically work, but it would be expensive for the government.
- main ideas conveyed in the report:
- £100 million spent in the first 10 years
- expansion of Bantu areas, and complete, forced migration of all Black SAs to those areas.
- promotion of industrial development in these areas through white, private enterprise, limiting govt. spending.
3
Q
Prohibition Of Mixed Marriages Act
A
- 1949
- made marriages between people of different races illegal.
- people currently in mixed marriages expected to split up
- reduced number of mixed births
- enabled by population registration act, 1950
4
Q
Immorality Act
A
-1950
- made interracial sexual relationships illegal
- less severe punishments for whites
- reduced number of mixed births
5
Q
Population Registration Act
A
-1950
- defined every SAn citizen as one of a specific race
- acted as basis for + allowed for many other Apartheid laws to be enforced
6
Q
Suppression Of Communism Act
A
-1950
- defined communism as any sort of unrest/protest
- allowed police to ban/arrest + label anti-apartheid campaigners as communists
7
Q
Bantu Authorities Act
A
-1951
- forced black South Africans to relocate to/ inhabit their respective territories permanently
- govt. chose the leaders of each area to cooperate
- long commuting distances
8
Q
Group Areas Act
A
-1950
- separated towns/cities into black, white, and coloured
- gave best/nicest areas to whites
- forcibly evicted those in the wrong areas
9
Q
Abolition Of Passes Act
A
- 1952
- made it so that all non-white SAs had to carry passbooks at all times + when commuting to white/alternate areas
- stop and search practices carried out frequently by police.
10
Q
Bantu Education Act
A
-1953
- moved control of Black Education over to Ministry for Native Affairs
- different standards of education, such as being taught ethnic languages to set them up for a limited life after school
- increased literacy and numeracy for black children due to broadening of education
11
Q
Separate Amenities Act
A
-1953
- divided public spaces + services into European and non-European
- resulted in separate parks, benches, trains, etc.
- constant reminder of Black SAs inferior position in society
12
Q
Opposition and Resistance 1948-57
A
- The Defiance Campaign,1952: Organised by ANC, involved using white services; e.g. trains, benches. Resulted in a vast ANC membership rise from 7000 to 100,000.
- Alexandra Bus Boycotts,1957: caused by the increase of bus fares, meaning the blacks in Alexandria boycotted the bus services; achieved its aim, fare increase was removed
- The Freedom Charter,1955: acted as a manifesto for all opposition to Apartheid. Participants incl: 320 Indians, 230 coloureds, 112 whites, 2200 blacks, policies include; fair voting rights/human rights, fair trials, employment, etc.
13
Q
Petty Apartheid VS Grand Apartheid
A
- Petty: enabled the smaller-scale segregation if public services/spaces and social events
- Grand: strictly separated housing and employment opportunities by race
14
Q
Development under Verwoerd
A
- PM of SA from 1958-66, previously Minister of Native Affairs, wrote the Bantu Education Act 1953
- Bantu Self-Government Act 1959 passed during his term
- Allowed blacks to develop separately in their ‘homelands’ or ‘Bantustans’ to appeal to the rest of the world
15
Q
Development Under Vorster
A
- Minister of Justice during Rivonia Trial
- PM 1966-78, during Soweto Uprising
16
Q
Bantu Self-Government Act
A
- 1959
- resettled blacks in 8 different bantustans/homelands
- made these homelands independent and self governing - elected ‘chiefs’ to be cooperative
17
Q
Robert Sobukwe + Sharpeville
A
- Leader of the PAC (Pan-Africanist Congress)
- organised anti-pass protest at sharpeville - peaceful crowd
- sent a letter three days before to attempt to persuade the police to cooperate, be peaceful
- 69 dead during Sharpeville Massacre, 21 March 1960
- sentenced to three years of labour in prison, lived out a quiet life afterwards
18
Q
Treason Trial
A
- December 1956: 156 people arrested for connections to freedom charter; mix of black, white, Indians and coloureds
- all accused of treason and supporting communism
- ‘treason trial’ lasted for five years, all charges dropped eventually
19
Q
MK
A
- ANC and Mandela created a terrorist wing called ‘MK’ or ‘spear of the people’ after the Sharpeville massacre
- Carried out first attacks in 1961, focusing on sabotage to avoid loss of life
- chief targets of power stations + government offices
20
Q
Rivonia Trial
A
- MK headquarters (Lilliesleaf Farm) discovered by police and raided in 1963
- incriminating evidence was found, led to the arrest of nine leading MK members, incl. Mandela
- Trial lasted from Dec 1963 to Jun 1964
- those involved did not receive the death penalty, but life in prison instead, as Mandela threatened martyrdom, along with the vast international publicity and attention received
- through the arrests, the police and government were able to break up and crack down on MK and the ANC inside SA
21
Q
Steve Biko and Black Conciousness
A
- founded SASO (1969), believed that black SAs should work independently without help from whites to obtain their freedom
- set up medical clinics and self-help organisations for poor black communities
- travelled all over SA, wrote extensively about “Black Consciousness”
- black consciousness: idea that white is not the image of all good and perception, but rather the perceptions of people are controlled by whites. Idea of operating as a united racial group in order to challenge societal standards set by whites
- banned in 1973, dead in 1977
22
Q
Soweto Uprising
A
- tension caused by announcement that Afrikaans would be taught in black schools, came across as white oppression, inability to fight back
- protest march arranged on June 16th, 1976, police shot into crowd, killing two and injuring several more
- deaths caused nationwide rioting, lasted for months and even years in some places.
- destruction of 350 schools, 700 blacks dead, 200 private homes destroyed, 6000 arrests (between June 1976- February 1977)
- television turned international opinion against white SA even more
23
Q
Failure of International Opposition pre-1970
A
- Anti Apartheid Movement set up in UK organised a boycott; caimpaigned for people not to buy SAn fruit, sherry and cigarettes
- boycott movement occurred from march 1st to march 31st in the UK 1960
- AAM campaigned also for imposing sanctions and total isolation of South Africa
- SA were able to withstand pressure from the outside world, due to their strong economy
- 5-7% growth, rich in natural minerals, monopoly of essential industrial resources
- UK and US needed SA in their struggle against communism
24
Q
UDF
A
- Formation of a new organisation called the UDF in 1983, included 565 different anti-apartheid groups, such as student groups, trade unions, women’s organisations and church groups
- ## boycotted 1984 elections, 29% of coloured and 19% of Indians voted (succesfull)
25
ANC 1978-90
- although banned, they gained influence in the townships in this period
- looked towards a future based on the freedom charter, a multiracial, one adult one vote democracy leaning towards socialism
- guerrilla attacks became more violent, killed innocent people including blacks
26
COSATU
- congress of South African trade unions, founded in 1985 December, culmination of 21 trade unions, +0.5m members in late 80s
- 1974, 14,167 lost through strikes VS 1982, 365,337 days lost
27
Church Leaders and Desmond Tutu
- Archbishop Desmond Tutu: General Secretary of the SACC, Patron of UDF. Travelled extensively campaigning against Apartheid, won Nobel Peace prize in 1984
- Rev. Allan Boesak: World alliance of reformed churches leader, worked with UDF, ANC member. Worked largely towards 1984 boycott, wrote books about his experience under apartheid.
- Frank Chikane: General Secretary of the SACC after Naude, key member of UDF. Promoted soup kitchens + adult education + Kairos Document (Christian document denouncing apartheid)
- Rev. Beyers Naude: succeeded Tutu as general secretary of the SACC, helped move anti-apartheid campaigners in and out of the country, negotiations for release of political prisoners
28
Botha’s Reforms - Why?
- South Africa was facing ruthless and relentless onslaught from communist forces supported by the USSR and China (total onslaught)
- decided that the government would fight this onslaught totally, by military, economic, psychological and political means (total strategy)
29
Botha’s Reforms
- played upon communist fears of western leaders like Margaret Thatcher and Ronald Reagan, led to them resisting the UN’s passing sanctions
- became active in border states like Angola and Mozambique, raided MK bases and set up/ supported anti government groups
- military spending increased from 700m rand in 1974 to 3 billion rand in 1981, 250,000 active military personnel in 1981, set up SAn arms industry
- Within SA: aimed to placate white business owners by creating a black middle class. Strategies like: repealing of MM act and passes act (1986), making it legal for Blacks to join trade unions, spent more on black education (3x)
- new constitution with a tricameral government, of representatives of different races
- staged a ‘propaganda war’ that they were fighting against communism on behalf of freedom, democracy, Christianity and free enterprise
30
Impact of Botha’s Reforms on South Africans
- increase in trade union activity: 365,337 days of work lost to strikes in 1982, compared to 14,167 in 1974
- formation of groups such as the UDF and COSATU
- caused increasingly violent protest, sparked by the government forcing black councillors to raise rents (30% unemployment)
31
Afrikaner Resistance to Botha’s Reforms
- Conservative Party: Botha’s reforms led to split in Nationalist Party, led to formation of the Afrikaner Conservative Party. Won 37% of Afrikaner vote in 1987, 39 seats in 1990
- AWB: more radical party, wanted volkstatt (separate states), was prepared to go to war if not. Prepared to kill prominent national party figures like Botha and Klerk. Led by Terre’Blanche
32
State of Emergency 1985-90
- Botha declared state of emergency in July of 1985
- police gained power to arrest without a warrant
- all media was strictly controlled
- 8,000 leading members of the UDF detained, 85% tortured, 500 killed by police in 1985
- brought unrest under control in 1986 after 34,000 detained
- increasing violence ensued from 86-89, descent into civil war - e.g. Stompie Moeketsie (13) leading 1500 u14 boys to burn down a town hall in 1987
- govt. banned COSATU, UDF and 14 other anti-apartheid groups.
33
International Opposition - 1980s
- economic sanctions opposed by Thatcher and Reagan
- private companies disagreed, saw apartheid as bad for business(now, not before)
- The Disinvestment Campaign was implemented on a significant scale during the mid-late 80s, e.g. Major global banks declaring that they would make no new loans to SA, causing value of rand to drop by 35% in August of 1985
- in face of this pressure, Botha repealed pass laws, permitted other heads of state/SAn minister of justice to meet Mandela
- US passed ‘The Comprehensive Anti-Apartheid Act of 1986’, essentially imposing official sanctions
34
De Klerk’s Reforms - Why?
- didn’t fully realise what he was doing, misled by events in Namibia, underestimated ANC
- if he didn’t abolish apartheid, he would worsen the economic crisis
- was described as practical, was open to/interested in what could work
- deeply religious, may have believed that god had chosen him to create a new SA
35
De Klerk’s Reforms - How?
- announced legalisation of ANC, PAC and other groups + release of hundreds of political prisoners and readiness to work with all political groups to create a new constitution
- released Sisulu and other leaders in October 1989, Mandela in February 1990
36
37
Mandela 1990-94
- leader of ANC
- walked out of CODESA talks in 1992, causing them to ‘fall apart’
- strongly advocated for one man one vote
- criticised de Klerk for stalling
38
De Klerk 1990-94
- President of SA, leader of national party
- stalled for time during CODESA
- accused of inciting violence between blacks as a third force
39
Joe Slovo 1990-94
- former leader of SAn communist party (succeeded by Chris Hani in 91)
- proposed sunset clause (Nov 1993) + mediated negotiations and agreed a deal
- included: one man one vote, but also a deputy president for any party that won more than 80 seats
40
Cyril Ramaphosa
- secretary general of ANC in 1991
- lead ANC negotiations with national party government
- reached negotiational success as a result of mutual respect + good relationship with Roelf Meyer
41
Roelf Meyer
- minister of constitutional affairs and communication for national party.
- chief negotiator for national party
42
CODESA
- Convention for a Democratic South Africa
- Began in late 1991, to find a new constitution and government for SA
- occurred during continuation of terrible violence
- main disagreement on one man one vote
- talks broke down in 1992 when Mandela walked out as a result of two key events; The Boipatong massacre, The Bisho massacre
- resumed in September of the same year
- sunset clause proposed, agreement reached
- De Klerk and Mandela won Nobel peace prize on 10th December 1993
43
Violence during CODESA
- KwaZulu Natal leader, Chief Buthelezi feared he would lose power under an ANC government
- meant that Inkatha and ANC supporters often fought and killed each other
- this relationship was exploited by de Klerk and his government
- white SA police accused of acting as a third force to stir up violence
- white nazi-style supremacist groups like AWB committed atrocious acts
44
The Boipatong Massacre
- 17th June 1992
- Inkatha members staying in migrant worker compounds attacked and killed 46 people from the Boipatong township, mostly women and children
- de Klerk refused to comment on the massacre, undermining his integrity as president, led Mandela to walk out
45
The Bisho Massacre
- 7th September 1992, 70,000 ANC supporters marched to Bisho (capital) in protest of the Leader of the Ciseki homeland
- 28 people dead, 200 wounded
46
Election of 1994
- 14,000 killed in politically related incidents from 1990-94
- 91% of registered voters cast their votes
- ANC won vast majority, failed to get over 66%
- NAtional Party with 20.4%, de Klerk became deputy president
- Buthelezi won 10.5%, became a government minister
