South Africa- Theme 2 Flashcards
(31 cards)
Why did opposition to apartheid increase during 1960-61? The Sharpeville Massacre, 1960
On 21st March 1960, around 20,000 people gathered outside the police station and demanded they were arrested. They were met with around 300 policemen who were armed. The police were inexperienced and poorly trained and attacked crowds with guns and baton.
The crowds included ANC and PAC members, who were peaceful and friendly.
69 people were killed and 186 injured.
Why did opposition to apartheid increase during 1960-61? The results/ significance of Sharpeville
Huge crowds attended funerals of those killed.
The government banned the ANC and PAC.
The ANC and PAC turned to militant resistance- MK & Poqo.
ANC member Oliver Tambo went into exile.
Africans burnt their pass books and held stay away protests.
The government arrested 18,000 people.
UN called for sanctions against SA, so investors took money out of SA.
In April 1960, the UN calls on SA to abandon apartheid.
May-June 1960, International boycotts of SA goods.
Young SA’s left SA to train as guerrillas in China, USSR and African countries.
British Commonwealth Conference criticised SA, leading to SA leaving the Commonwealth.
It provoked other protests, violence, strikes and demonstrations (e.g Mpondoland, Langa).
30th March 1960, the government declared a state of emergency. Mandela was arrested and other oppositions. Public meetings banned.
8th April 1960, government passed the Unlawful Organisation Act- banning all opposition parties.
Why did SA become a republic in 1961? Harold Macmillan
Macmillan was British Prime Ministed from 1957-1963.
A conservative.
He did a tour of Africa to decolonise and strengthen Commonwealth ties.
He visited SA in February 1960, he was the first British PM to visit.
Why did SA become a republic in 1961? Macmillan’s ‘Wind of change’ speech
In front of white members of the SA government, in Cape Town.
He said they needed to change and give up rule and accept African nationalism.
He said they rest of Africa was moving forward and changing, so they need to as well.
‘The wind of change is blowing through this continent’/
In response, Verwoerd increased internal decolonisation by the use of Bantustans.
Why did SA become a republic in 1961? Verwoerd’s aims
To strengthen apartheid by banning opposition.
Restrict Africans movement, by increasing Bantustans. In 1963, the Transkei became a self-governing state. In 1976, it was declared independent.
He put his support in Afrikaner Christian Nationalist Association, the Broederbond.
Whites only referendum to try and gain support.
No TV until 1976, so he had full control of the media. No bad publicity.
Police force was increased
Why did SA become a republic in 1961? Trade
1/3 of trade was with Britain.
‘Our economies are now largely independent’.
According to Macmillan, SA’s success in industry was down to Britain.
In 1956, nearly 2/3 of external investment was from Britain.
Why did SA become a republic in 1961? Pressure of decolonisation
Decolonised countries would join the Commonwealth, led by Britain and would be sites for investment.
America put pressure on Britain to decolonise.
African countries were gaining independence, e.g. Ghana in 1957.
Why did SA become a republic in 1961? Cold War
After WW2, global politics divided into 3 groups: Democracy, liberty and capitalism (UK, USA, Japan. Communism (Soviet Union). Non-aligned movement (newly independent countries, India).
Why did SA become a republic in 1961? The Suez Crisis, 1956
British and French troops sent to Egypt in 1956 to protect their interest in the Suez Canal, which was a vital transport link.
The USA, USSR and UN persuaded Britain and France to withdraw.
Why did SA become a republic in 1961? Creation of the Republic
In October 1960, 56% voted in a referendum for a republic. Although man in Natal voted against it.
SA became a republic on 31st May 1961.
The state replaced the Queen.
A new currency- the Rand.
Arguably, there was no dramatic impact/change.
Why did SA become a republic in 1961? Why leave the Commonwealth?
Britain advised if they were a republic, with apartheid, SA couldn’t remain in the Commonwealth.
Verwoerd wanted independence and didn’t want different embassies.
Asian and African states supported SA leaving, due to their opposition to apartheid.
Why did SA become a republic in 1961? Impact within SA
Heightened segregation.
Resentment from Bantus towards Afrikaners.
Government had more control and further enforcement of apartheid.
Why did SA become a republic in 1961? Impact internationally
In 1963, an arms embargo began.
Many fled to the UK.
The British AAM was founded in 1960.
Britain kept pressure on SA.
Britain wanted to stay allies with anti-communist states, good relations.
The Conservative Party Monday Club established as a direct result of the ‘wind of change’ speech to debate decolonisation.
SA was a major global supplier of uranium, which is used for nuclear weapons and power. This made other countries reluctant to enforce trade sanctions.
In 1962, the UN passed a resolution to ban imports and exports within SA. They were voluntary, so western powers didn’t enforce it.
In 1963, the UN passed a resolution advocating an arms embargo. Britain imposed it in 1964.
In 1963, Canada imposed embargo on all military trade with SA.
In 1963, India cut links with SA.
How radical did the ANC and PAC become after 1960? Moves to armed struggle
During the 1950s and 60s, individual African activists expressed themselves through violence against property and people, e.g. Durban 1959, East London 1952.
Mandela and Sisulu claimed they had considered violence in speeches and protests.
Mandela argued that the government had already started violence, with the police and army.
SAIC against an armed struggle.
In June 1961, the ANC announced the armed struggle.
SACP was first to take up armed struggle.
ANC carried out a 3 day stay away in 1961, after the change to Republic.
Mpondoland, 1960- rebels killed headmen and chiefs who identifies with the state. They asked the ANC to join, but they remained peaceful.
How radical did the ANC and PAC become after 1960? ANC and Umkhonto weSizwe (MK)
It was set up as a separate organisation from the ANC and CP- led by Mandela and Joe Slovo. It was an independent military wing, acting in support of the Liberation Movement.
Communist links to Soviet Union gave financial contributions.
Headquarters were raided in 1963 and leaders were arrested and tries at the Rivonia Trial.
The first sabotage on 16th December 1961, Public holiday. Targets chosen where loss of life was a minimum, e.g. power units, communication posts.
How radical did the ANC and PAC become after 1960? PAC and Poqo
‘Pure’ or ‘alone’.
It was the PAC armed wing, to overthrow the SA government and replace it with a Socialist African state. To kill white people and Transkei police.
Mass terror, with little training. Poqo killings were publicised.
Paarl, 1962- crowd of 250 men marched, armed with axes and homemade weapons attacked police station, homes and shops. They killed 7 people.
4th February 1963, they murdered a family in the Transkei.
They didn’t have mass support, so fell apart. It wasn’t a sustained armed struggle.
10 members executed for betrayal.
Little international support.
The Rivonia Trial, 1963-64
Mandela, Sisulu, and MK leaders were tried at Pretoria Supreme Court, Johannesburg. They were accused of recruiting fighters, attempting to commit sabotage, having links with communist organisations and soliciting money from foreign states.
Defended by white lawyers in support of the Liberation Movement.
Mandela gave a resounding speech from the dock.
Prosecutor called for the death penalty, but the judge gave life imprisonment.
Imprisoned on Robben Island, where they were isolated, censored and had limited communication.
Joe Modise took control on MK in 1965-84.
To what extent was the Rivonia Trial a political opportunity for the ANC, 1963-64? It was a political opportunity
The UN said if SA used the death penalty, there would be economic/ trade sanctions. So SA settled for life imprisonment.
ANC got more media coverage, Mandela’s speech at the docks, which was 3 hours long. It inspired people and gained support.
Support from the UK. The GAAM. Meetings and protests in London.
Tambo got support from the Soviet Union, giving military training and weapons and financial support.
To what extent was the Rivonia Trial a political opportunity for the ANC, 1963-64? It wasn’t a political oppotunity
Tambo was the only leader left, but he was in exile in London. Therefore, there was a slight drop in support as their action/protest was limited.
The ANC were banned or imprisoned, suggesting that the NP had ‘won’.
Joining with the Soviet Union, the ANC lost support, e.g. fear of communists after the Red Scare in America.
How did exile and imprisonment affect the ANC and PAC? Ronald Segal
An anti-apartheid activist in London.
Editor of the Penguin African Library.
Published books on the history of the ANC.
How did exile and imprisonment affect the ANC and PAC? Oliver Tambo
In 1960, he went into exile to gain international support and establish the ‘external mission’.
He addressed the UN in New York, highlighting the struggle of political prisoners. The UN called for their release.
He got funding from the Soviet Union and help with military training and weapons.
Sweden aided the ANC with non-military activities.
He gave the ANC significant international legitimacy.
By the end of 1963, there were few, free African political leaders still living in SA.
How did exile and imprisonment affect the ANC and PAC? The Global Anti-Apartheid Movement, 1960s
It was founded in 1960 in London.
Main support from Britain, particularly Christians who opposed apartheid.
Trevor Huddleston was vice president of the AAM, 1960-81. Then President in 1981-1994.
Other support from liberals and labour politicians, who opposed colonisation and white rule. Support from the Guardian and Observer.
In 1959, they started a boycott movement of SA products, e.g. sherry
Support from Sweden, USA, Canada, the Netherlands.
They got SA banned from rugby.
Olympics Mexico 1968, 90 countries withdrew, causing SA to be excluded.
Olympics Munich 1972, SA banned.
SA excluded from football in 1963.
SA excluded from the Commonwealth games in 1961.
In 1962, Denis Brutus formed the South African Non-Racial Olympic Committee. He campaigned and got SA out of the 1964 Olympic Games, Tokyo.
What impact did economic growth have on people in SA? Economic recovery
After WW2, the economy was booming, and growing faster than Europe.
4.6% economic growth from 1950-1973.
Dependent on mining and agriculture.
Low productivity due to skills shortage, partly due to discriminatory education.
What impact did economic growth have on people in SA? Impact on black South Africans
Employment in manufacturing doubled between 1951-1975, from 855,000 to 1.6 million.
Professional, technical and clerical workers increased to 420,000.
Employees rose in gold mining, to 400,000 people.
Cheap homes built, to try and eradicate slums.
New townships.
1951 Native Building Workers Act.
Lower wages than whites, but they did increase by 25%. Industrial workers wages increased by 50%.
Population rose from 11m to 15m.
In 1968, prosecutions for pass offences increased by 50%.
NP wanted to reduce the number of African in cities, but African in cities rose to 6m.
Some jobs were still reserved for whites.
