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1
Q

Universal Grammar. (UG)

A

According to some linguists, we are born with a pattern of grammar in our head just as are born with a heart and lungs.

2
Q

The Language Acquisition Device (LAD)

A

Ability to assimilate the language we heard and begin to use it systematically.

The Language Acquisition Device (LAD) is a controversial claim from language acquisition research proposed by Noam Chomsky in the 1960s. The LAD concept is a purported instinctive mental capacity which enables an infant to acquire and produce language.

3
Q

Minimal pairs

A

Word pairs such as pit and bit, where one sound changes the meaning of the word

4
Q

Phonemes

A

Take the words pit and bit for example and think about how just a single sound changes the meaning of the word. P and b are two distinctive sounds within the English sound system and are referred to as phonemes. Phonemes then are defined as the smallest distinctive or contrastive units of the sound system of a language.

Most phonemes can be put into groups; for example, in English we can identify a group of plosive phonemes / p t k b d g /, a group of voiceless fricatives / f s h / and so on.

5
Q

Phonetics

A

Phonetics tries to differentiate among the sounds with the highest possible degree of accuracy.

6
Q

Allophones

A

any of the speech sounds that represent a single phoneme, such as the aspirated k in kit and the unaspirated k in skit, which are allophones of the phoneme k.

7
Q

Homophones

A

each of two or more words having the same pronunciation but different meanings, origins, or spelling.
each of a set of symbols denoting the same sound or group of sounds.

Examples of Homophones
ad, add	ate, eight
know, no	
meet, meat
one, won	
their, there, they're
theirs, there's	
to, too, two
who's, whose	
your, you're
8
Q

Homophones

A
Ball	Bawl
3	Caret	Carrot
4	Dual	Duel
5	Eye	I
a written element that represents the same spoken unit as another, as ks, a homophone of x in English.
9
Q

Collocations

A

definition of collocation refers to a group of words that often go together or that are likely to occur together. Two words that often go together, such as light sleeper or early riser are an example of collocation.
Here are a number of common collocations in English:

to make the bed	
I need to make the bed every day.
to do homework	
My son does his homework after dinner.
to take a risk	
Some people don't take enough risks in life.
to give someone advice	
The teacher gave us some advice on taking tests.
10
Q

Inflection

A

In linguistic morphology, inflection (or inflexion) is a process of word formation, in which a word is modified to express different grammatical categories such as tense, case, voice, aspect, person, number, gender, mood, animacy, and definiteness.

s (endings that mark distinctions of number, case,
person, tense, mood, and comparison). They include the plural -s and the
possessive ’s used with nouns (boys, boy’s); the third person singular present
tense -s, the past tense and past participle -ed, and the present participle -ing
used with verbs (aids, aided, aiding); and the comparative -er and superlative
-est used with some adjectives and adverbs (slower, slowest).

11
Q

Concord or agreement

A

is an interconnection between words, especially
marked by their inflections. Thus, “The bird sings” and “The birds sing”
illustrate subject-verb concord. (It is just a coincidence that the singular ending
of some verbs is identical in form with the plural ending of some nouns.)
Similarly, in “this day” both words are singular, and in “these days” both are
plural; some languages, such as Spanish, require that all modifiers agree with
the nouns they modify in number, but in English only this and that change
their form to show such agreement.

12
Q

Function words

A

are minor parts of speech (for example, articles, auxiliaries,
conjunctions, prepositions, pronouns, and certain adverbial particles) that serve
as grammatical signals used with word order to serve some of the same
functions as inflections. For example, in English the indirect object of a verb
can be shown by either word order (“I gave the dog a bone”) or a function
word (“I gave a bone to the dog”)

A language like English whose
grammar depends heavily on the use of word order and function words is said
to be analytic.

13
Q

Prosodic Signals

A

such as pitch, stress, and tempo, can indicate grammatical
meaning. The difference between the statement “He’s here” and the question
“He’s here?” is the pitch used at the end of the sentence. The chief difference between the verb conduct and the noun conduct is that the verb has a stronger stress on its second syllable and the noun on its first syllable. In “He died happily” and “He died, happily,” the tempo of the last two words makes an importance difference in meaning.

14
Q

Etymology

A

Knowing a word’s early history,

15
Q

allomorph

A

A morpheme may, however, have more than one pronunciation or spelling. For
example, the regular noun plural ending has two spellings (-s and -es) and three
pronunciations (an s-sound as in backs, a z-sound as in bags, and a vowel plus
z-sound as in batches). Each spoken variation is called an allomorph of the plural
morpheme. Similarly, when the morpheme -ate is followed by -ion (as in activateion), the t of -ate combines with the i of -ion as the sound “sh” (so we might spell
the word “activashon”). Such allomorphic variation is typical of the morphemes of
English, even though the spelling does not represent it.

16
Q

compound

A

A word that has

two or more bases (such as applejack) is called a compound.

17
Q

Idiom

A

An idiom is a combination of words whose
meaning cannot be predicted from its constituent parts. One kind of idiom is the
combination of a verb with an adverb, a preposition, or both—for instance, turn
on (a light), call up (on the telephone), take over (a business), ask for (a job), come
down with (an illness), and go back on (a promise). Such an expression is a single
semantic unit: to go back on is to ‘abandon’ a promise. But from the standpoint of
grammar, several independent words are involved.

18
Q

kinesics

A

Such specialized gestures as the indifferent shrug of the shoulders, the admonitory
shaking of the finger, the lifting up of the hand in greeting and the waving of it in
parting, the widening of the eyes in astonishment, the scornful lifting of the brows,
the approving nod, and the disapproving sideways shaking of the head—all these
need not accompany speech at all; they themselves communicate. Indeed, there is
some reason to think that gestures are older than spoken language and are the matrix
out of which it developed. Like language itself, such gestures vary in use and meaning
from one culture to another. In India, a sideways wagging of the head indicates that
the head-wagger understands what another person is saying. When gestures accompany speech, they may be more or less unconscious, like the crossed arms of a person
talking with another, indicating a lack of openness to the other’s ideas. The study of
such communicative body movements is known as

19
Q

Ellipsis

A

Ellipsis happens when we leave out (in other words, when we don’t use) items which we would normally expect to use in a sentence if we followed the grammatical rules. The following examples show ellipsis. The items left out are in brackets [ ]:

I am absolutely sure [that] I have met her somewhere before.

A:
[Have you] Seen my gloves anywhere?

B:
They’re in the kitchen.

She sang and [she] played the violin at the same time.

A:
[Are] You ready yet?

B:
Yes. [I’m] Ready now. [I’m] Sorry to keep you waiting.

20
Q

dialect

A

The term dialect refers to any variety of a language, and from the point of view of sociolinguistics, all dialects are equally correct, systematic, logical, and meaningful.

21
Q

Standard variety vd. Non-standard variety

A

The issue of standard vs. non-standard variety of a language is not a linguistic one, but political. The standard dialect is associated with prestige in the society. That is why many people prefer it to other varieties. Some people feel pressured to use the standard dialect to conform to the rules of the society. However, some speakers of a non-standard dialect prefer to use it to demonstrate their sense of belonging to their community or social/ethnic group.

22
Q

idiolects

A

Besides all these variations, there are individual variations of language use that are called idiolects. We all have unique ways of speaking that reflect our personal identities. Through our linguistic choices we have an opportunity to express who we are and where we are from. Our language changes over time as it gets into contact with various idiolects of people who we interact with. It changes with our life experiences. There are no two speakers who speak exactly the same way.

23
Q

inflection

A

a change in or addition to the form of a word that shows a change in the way it is used in sentences:
If you add the plural inflection “-s” to “dog” you get “dogs.”
More examples
In the present tense we say “he sits,” because the third person singular inflection of the verb is -s.
By adding the inflection “-ed,” you form the past tense of the verb.

24
Q

idioms

A

A group of words established by usage as having a meaning not deducible from those of the individual words (e.g., rain cats and dogs, see the light).

We’ll cross that bridge when we come to it
Let’s not talk about that problem right now
Wrap your head around something Understand something complicated
You can say that again That’s true, I agree
Your guess is as good as mine I have no idea

25
Q

changes that language undergoes at all levels

A

1- Lexical change
The lexicon of a language undergoes change in
either one of two ways: “word gain” or “word
loss”.

26
Q
Lexical change
(word gain)
A

New words are always added to the lexicon of every
language, almost on a daily basis. We have already
seen in our discussion of word‐formation that there
are systematic word‐formation processes that create
new words and add them to the dictionary of every
language:
derivation, word coinage, conversion, clipping,
blending, acronyms, borrowing and loan
translations, compounding, back‐formation, and
eponyms.

27
Q
Lexical change
(word loss)
A

• So, Shakespeare used beseem (= to be
suitable), wot (= to know), fain (= gladly).
• And technology might drive some words out
of use, e.g., buckboard, buggy, dogcart,
hansom, etc.

28
Q
Lexical change
(word loss)
A

Euphemisms can also eventually lead to loss of
words:
lavatory, bathroom, restroom, lady’s
room/men’s room, etc.
• Hugh Rawson’s Dictionary of euphemisms and other
doubletalk includes:
‘act of God’ for disaster
‘administrative assistant’ for secretary
‘associate’ for co‐worker of a lower rank

29
Q

Semantic change

A

• Language change may also take the form of
changing the meanings of existing words.
There are three such cases: broadening (dog,
bird), narrowing (meat, girl, hound), and
semantic shift.
• Semantic shift may be a case of elevation
(knight, chivalrous) or degradation (lust, silly).
• Keeping the system balanced: mete, flǣsc, and
foda.

Broadening is a type of semantic change by which the meaning of a word becomes broader or more inclusive than its earlier meaning. … The opposite process is called semantic narrowing, with a word taking on a more restricted meaning than it had before.

30
Q

Semantic Narrowing

A

is the shift in which words refer to a more specific class of items or objects or the process by which a word’s meaning becomes less general than its earlier meaning. Semantic narrowing is the narrowing of meaning. This happens when a word with a general meaning is applied to something more specific.

31
Q

Language Semantic Change

A

In semantics and historical linguistics, semantic change refers to any change in the meaning(s) of a word over the course of time. … Common types of semantic change include amelioration, pejoration, broadening, semantic narrowing, bleaching, metaphor, and metonymy.

32
Q

Semantic Change

Semantic Shift

A

Semantic change (also semantic shift, semantic progression, semantic development, or semantic drift) is a form of language change regarding the evolution of word usage—usually to the point that the modern meaning is radically different from the original usage.

Semantic shifts are changes to words in the meaning assigned to words.

33
Q

What is narrowing?

A

Is when a word refers to something more specific than the original denotation.

Example 1
The adjective “gay” originally denoted someone who is carefree, light and frivolous but has narrowed to mean a homosexual man.

Example 2
Meat, is Old English it originally denoted “food” but then narrowed to any food in the form of animal flesh.

34
Q

Semantic Change

What is broadening?

A

Is the opposite of narrowing, when a word is available to wider range of meanings.

Example 1
the adverb “literally” which used in the broader and amp; informal sense rather it’s original denotation than such as in the sentence “I”m literally dead right now” can mean someone with an uncontrollable laughter” rather than meaning no longer alive.

35
Q

Semantic Change

Broadening example

A

the phrase “you guys” or more simply “guys” which broadened to a gender-neutral use not just to refer to men but women or a group of people.

36
Q

Semantic Change

What is amelioration?

A

Is when a word acquires a positive denotation than it once had.
Example 1
the adjective “sick” which is now used as a slang among the youth to mean “cool”

Example 2
Another example is “nice” in Old English id denoted someone who was “foolish, silly or ignorant” but in the 1500s it became ameliorated to more positive tone, to mean “kind, considerate and friendly”

37
Q

Semantic Change

What is pejoration?

A

Pejoration is the opposite of amelioration. It’s a word that once had a positive value but then acquired negative denotations.

Example 1
With the example of the adjective gay; which has come to be used as slang to denote to label a situation or person as unpleasant, distasteful or bad.

Example 2
the adjective “discreet” which came to denote someone who is careful and cautious in order to keep something confidential, but is now being used as a euphemism to illicit sexual meetings in online dating. Additionally, the term has become so pejorative that several online dating services has banned the term as it is being used by married persons “looking to fool around’ aka adultery.

38
Q

What pejoration aka?

A

Pejoration can also be called semantic degradation or deteoration.

39
Q

Taboo subject where people use euphemisms

A

“Conception” parents talk about conception refering to seeds and plants or la ciguena

40
Q

Morphological Change

A

Languages also change morphologically over
time. And morphological rules may be lost,
added, or changed.

Loss of morphology
• Latin had case markings on nouns. Romance
languages do not have any of these today.
Same thing happened with Arabic dialects.
• Old English (OE) actually did have case
markings.

41
Q

Morphological Change

A

Loss of derivational morphemes
• A derivational affix may be lost with or without
remnants.
• The suffix ‐t was once used to derive nouns from
verbs in English:
draw  draft drive  drift shove  shift
• Compare with the suffix ‐u that formed nouns from
adjectives, which has no remnant words today:
menig “many”  menigu “multitude”
eald “old”  ealdu “old age”

42
Q

Morphological Change

A

Adding rules: Borrowing of derivational affixes
• Latin –bilis was borrowed into English via
French words (e.g., change  changeable).
But it was afterwards also applied to native
words, such as wash  washable.

43
Q

Morphology Change

A

New affixes from “false” analysis
• New affixes may also arise from a false analysis
of the morphological structure of words. The
process is also called folk etymology:
hamburger  cheeseburger, fishburger, chickenburger
alcoholic  workaholic, chocaholic, shopaholic

44
Q

Morphological Change

A

Extending affixes to new categories
• Sometimes, morphological change takes place
when an affix is used with categories that it
normally does not apply to, thereby deriving
new words:
‐able in objectionable
‐ese in motherese and journalese

45
Q

Phonological Change

A

• Perhaps the most noticeable change in the
grammar of a language happens in
pronunciation.
• Phonological change is typically caused by the
co‐articulation processes

vowel deletion, vowel reduction, consonant deletion, substitution

46
Q

Phonological Change

Substitution

A

In historical linguistics, phonological change is any sound change that alters the distribution of phonemes in a language. In other words, a language develops a new system of oppositions among its phonemes. Old contrasts may disappear, new ones may emerge, or they may simply be rearranged.

• Substitution involves the replacement of one
segment with another similar‐sounding
segment:
MidE [x]  ModE [f] in “laugh”
Standard English [T]  Cockney [f] in “thin”

47
Q

Phonological Shift

A

It refers to a phenomenon where the sounds of words in a language change over time, usually in a relatively consistent way.

In Germanic languages (I’m not sure of the date but prior to the 7th century A.D. most likely), there was a consonant shift. Words that had Indo-European roots with voiced consonants often became voiceless consonants, and voiceless consonants became aspirated consonants or fricatives.

48
Q

Phonological Change

A

Phonological change – changes in pronunciation can come in a variety of forms. Some changes merely affect the way a single word is pronounced: older speakers across the UK tend to stress the first syllable in the word controversy, for instance, while younger speakers increasingly place the main stress on the second syllable, controversy. In other cases, the pronunciation of a particular vowel sound or consonant sound changes gradually across successive generations and thus has an impact on a large group of words. A change in pronunciation might initially take place only in one particular geographic location and remain local. Or it may over time spread nationally and thus affect all varieties of English.

49
Q

Syntactic Change

A

Syntactic change is a type of natural language variation that refers to changes in the grammar of a language. This change can be caused or facilitated both by socio-cultural factors and by language-internal factors.

50
Q

What is discourse analysis?

A

Discourse analysis is a research method for studying written or spoken language in relation to its social context. It aims to understand how language is used in real life situations.

When you do discourse analysis, you might focus on:

The purposes and effects of different types of language
Cultural rules and conventions in communication
How values, beliefs and assumptions are communicated
How language use relates to its social, political and historical context

Materials that are suitable for discourse analysis include:

Books, newspapers and periodicals
Marketing material, such as brochures and advertisements
Business and government documents
Websites, forums, social media posts and comments
Interviews and conversations
By analyzing these types of discourse, researchers aim to gain an understanding of social groups and how they communicate.

51
Q

Discourse Analysis

A

How is discourse analysis different from other methods?
Unlike linguistic approaches that focus only on the rules of language use, discourse analysis emphasizes the contextual meaning of language.

It focuses on the social aspects of communication and the ways people use language to achieve specific effects (e.g. to build trust, to create doubt, to evoke emotions, or to manage conflict).

Instead of focusing on smaller units of language, such as sounds, words or phrases, discourse analysis is used to study larger chunks of language, such as entire conversations, texts, or collections of texts. The selected sources can be analyzed on multiple levels.

52
Q

Discourse Analysis

A

Level of communication

What is analyzed?
Vocabulary
Words and phrases can be analyzed for ideological associations, formality, and euphemistic and metaphorical content.

Grammar
The way that sentences are constructed (e.g. verb tenses, active or passive construction, and the use of imperatives and questions) can reveal aspects of intended meaning.

Structure
The structure of a text can be analyzed for how it creates emphasis or builds a narrative.
Genre Texts can be analyzed in relation to the conventions and communicative aims of their genre (e.g. political speeches or tabloid newspaper articles).

Non-verbal communication

Non-verbal aspects of speech, such as tone of voice, pauses, gestures, and sounds like “um”, can reveal aspects of a speaker’s intentions, attitudes, and emotions.

Conversational codes
The interaction between people in a conversation, such as turn-taking, interruptions and listener response, can reveal aspects of cultural conventions and social roles.

53
Q

Inflections

A

Inflection refers to a process of word formation in which items are added to the base form of a word to express grammatical meanings. The word “inflection” comes from the Latin inflectere, meaning “to bend.”

Inflections in English grammar include the genitive ‘s; the plural -s; the third-person singular -s; the past tense -d, -ed, or -t; the negative particle ‘nt; -ing forms of verbs; the comparative -er; and the superlative -est. While inflections take a variety of forms, they are most often prefixes or suffixes. They are used to express different grammatical categories. For example, the inflection -s at the end of dogs shows that the noun is plural. The same inflection -s at the end of runs shows that the subject is in the third-person singular (s/he runs). The inflection -ed is often used to indicate the past tense, changing walk to walked and listen to listened. In this way, inflections are used to show grammatical categories such as tense, person, and number.

Inflections can also be used to indicate a word’s part of speech. The prefix en-, for example, transforms the noun gulf into the verb engulf. The suffix -er transforms the verb read into the noun reader.
Inflection refers to a process of word formation in which items are added to the base form of a word to express grammatical meanings. The word “inflection” comes from the Latin inflectere, meaning “to bend.”

Inflections in English grammar include the genitive ‘s; the plural -s; the third-person singular -s; the past tense -d, -ed, or -t; the negative particle ‘nt; -ing forms of verbs; the comparative -er; and the superlative -est. While inflections take a variety of forms, they are most often prefixes or suffixes. They are used to express different grammatical categories. For example, the inflection -s at the end of dogs shows that the noun is plural. The same inflection -s at the end of runs shows that the subject is in the third-person singular (s/he runs). The inflection -ed is often used to indicate the past tense, changing walk to walked and listen to listened. In this way, inflections are used to show grammatical categories such as tense, person, and number.

Inflections can also be used to indicate a word’s part of speech. The prefix en-, for example, transforms the noun gulf into the verb engulf. The suffix -er transforms the verb read into the noun reader.