Speech and spelling

Question 1

What does the psycholinguistic approach assume? (3)

Answer 1

Stackhouse (2006)

1. The child receives information (auditory or visual)
2. Remembers it and stores it as a lexical representation in the lexicon
3. Selects and produces spoken/written output

Question 2

What is a lexicon?

Answer 2

A store of words

Question 3

Why do speech sound difficulties arise?

Answer 3

Due to a breakdown at one or more levels of input, stored linguistic knowledge or output

Question 4

What is the speech sound system a basis for?

Answer 4

1. Speech development and foundation for literacy

Question 5

What can the psycholinguistic approach explain? (2)

Answer 5

1. There are processing mechanisms which underlie both spoken and written language
2. Suggesting that a child with impairments in speech will also have an impairment in literacy

Question 6

Explain difficulties at the bottom left of the model (2)

Answer 6

1. A child with a hearing impairment has a deficit in the bottom left
2. This impacts on how words are heard but also how they are classified and stored

Question 7

Where does a child with a difficulty in processing spoken language have a deficit on the model?

Answer 7

Above the ear on the left input side

Question 8

What do difficulties on the input side of the model lead to?

Answer 8

Inaccurate and imprecise representations of words in the lexicon, which will be reflected in speech output (Stackhouse & Wells, 1997)

Question 9

Explain difficulties on the output side of the model (2)

Answer 9

1. Bottom right (structural abnormalities)

2. Motor programming level

Question 10

What do difficulties on the output side of the model lead to? (2)

Answer 10

1. Inconsistent and disordered production can have a knock-on effect on the auditory processing skills and developing lexicon as children constantly self-monitor their speech
2. Not creating the correct phonological representations and motor programs for speech

Question 11

What does correct spelling require?

Answer 11

Knowledge of the conventions of how language is formed

Question 12

How will input and output deficits impact familiar word spelling?

Answer 12

Inconsistent representations or deficits in motor programming, they are likely to have spelling problems (Stackhouse & Snowling, 1996)

Question 13

How will input and output deficits impact unfamiliar word spelling? (3)

Answer 13

1. Child holds onto the word in a temporary store to segment into components and allocate letters
2. Case study of John (Snowling, Stackhouse & Rack, 1986)
3. Bird et al (1995)

Question 14

Describe the case study of John (Snowling, Stackhouse & Rack, 1986) (2)

Answer 14

1. John’s output deficits prevented successful rehearsal of longer words
2. Thereby interfering with his segmentation of syllables for spelling

Question 15

What does Bird et al (1995) support?

Answer 15

Problems with segmenting speech into subsyllabic units can lead to both speech and literacy problems

Question 16

What does a child require to develop written language?

Answer 16

Necessary spoken language skills to develop literacy in three phases

Question 17

What is Frith’s (1985) model of literacy development?

Answer 17

1. Logographic
2. Alphabetic
3. Orthographic

Question 18

Describe the logographic stage

Answer 18

Visual whole word recognition strategy

Question 19

Describe the alphabetic stage

Answer 19

Utilising letter-sound correspondences

Question 20

Describe the orthographic stage

Answer 20

Dependent on segmentation of larger units - morphemes

Question 21

How do speech difficulties impact literacy development? (4)

Answer 21

1. Depends on successful progress of speech
2. May be able to spell using a whole word approach at the logographic stage
3. Unable to develop letter-sound correspondences
4. Arrested in development at both phases

Question 22

Describe the arrest of development

Answer 22

1. Arrested in speech and literacy development at a phase prior to PA development
2. Have segmentation difficulties to spell new words
3. Michael and Caroline (Stackhouse, 1989)

Question 23

Describe the case studies of Michael and Caroline

Answer 23

1. Phonological processing skills are not developed sufficiently to tackle the next phase of development in either speech or literacy

Question 24

What is phonological awareness?

Answer 24

The ability to reflect on sound structures of an utterance, rather than its meaning (Stackhouse, 1997)

Question 25

What is the link between PA and literacy? (2)

Answer 25

1. Goswami and Bryant (1990): PA is likely to be a strong predictor of literacy development 2. Allows children to map spoken output with the written form (Stackhouse & Wells, 1997)

Question 26

What did Holm, Farrier & Dodd (2008) find? (2)

Answer 26

1. Children who made disordered speech sounds showed difficulties on phonological awareness compared to those with speech delay 2. Indicates difficulties in learning the constraints of a phonological system in speech sound difficulties

Question 27

What did Bird, Bishop & Freeman (1995) find? (2)

Answer 27

1. Measures of phonological awareness are highly correlated with spelling skills in children with speech sound disorders 2. Suggests that phonological processing abilities are related to the ability to spell phonetically predictable words

Question 28

What is the critical age hypothesis? (2)

Answer 28

Bishop and Adams (1990) Persisting speech difficulties, where children are required to use phonological skills for learning to read are at a high risk for literacy problems

Question 29

How does Bird et al (1995) support the critical age hypothesis?

Answer 29

Phonological processing skills at the beginning of literacy develop may determine a child's prognosis (Bird et al., 1995), even if disorder resolves, perhaps due to impaired underlying phonological representations

Question 30

What may cause more severe spelling impairments?

Answer 30

More pervasive speech processing problems (eg. input and output) and more severe difficulties (Stackhouse & Wells, 2001)

Question 31

Summarise the discussion of speech difficulties impacting spelling (3)

Answer 31

1. Pervasive and severe difficulties 2. Languages skills may be more predictive of literacy outcomes (Bishop & Adams, 1990) 3. Complex skill - unlikely cause and effect

Question 32

Explain the cause and effect relationship between speech and spelling (3)

Answer 32

Nathan, Stackhouse, Goulandris & Snowling (2004) 1. Complex so a clear relationship is unlikely 2. Protective factors eg. IQ 3. Environmental factors eg. quality of literacy instruction

Question 33

Conclusion

Answer 33

Any difficulty in basic speech processing will not only result in spoken difficulties but also inconsistent representations and development of phonological awareness, thereby impacting literacy acquisition