sports psychology P2 Flashcards
(178 cards)
1
Q
What are the characteristics of a TYPE A personality?
A
works fast
strong desire to succeed
likes control
prone to suffer from stress
2
Q
What are the characteristics of a TYPE B personality?
A
Works more slowly
Lack desire to succeed
Doesn’t enjoy control
Less prone to stress
3
Q
define the term attitude
A
a predisposition to behave in a particular way towards something in a persons environment
4
Q
What are the factors which can influence how attitudes are formed?
A
peer groups
Parents
media
Religion
5
Q
Evaluate the trait theory of personality formation
A
+personality can be predicted, personality is influenced by genetics/innate e.g. Aggressive tendencies
- not accurate as not likely to be just genetic input that determines personality, doesn’t account for how personality seems to change in different environments
6
Q
Evaluate the social learning theory of personality formation
A
+Bobo Doll experiments supports & adds validity, evidence to suggest sine aspects of personality are learned by watching and copying role models
– viewed as too simplistic as it not just our environment which determines our personality, children/twins bought up in the same way don’t always display the same personality
7
Q
use sporting examples to explain visual guidance
A
demonstrations/videos
shows the learner what to do
creates mental image
e.g. a coach perform a chest pass to show learner proper technique
8
Q
use sporting examples to explain verbal guidance
A
e.g. A coach telling a netball player how to dodge
when someone explains how to perform the activity
gives coaching points
9
Q
define learned helplessness
A
a belief that failure is inevitable
feeling of hopelessness
can be specific - netball
or global - all sport
10
Q
define mastery orientation
A
a feeling of being in control of the outcome
or an individual being motivated by learning
11
Q
identify characteristics of good leadership
A
good communication skills
Confident
Motivated
Flexible leadership style
12
Q
What are cognitive stress management techniques a coach can teach his athletes?
A
Mindfulness
Mental rehearsal
Goal setting
Rational thinking
13
Q
What is positive reinforcement?
A
a stimulus is given when the desired response occurs
increases likelihood of repetition as strengthens the S-R bond
14
Q
How can a coach use positive reinforcement to help a player learn a skill?
A
praise the netball player when they make a successful intercept
awarding a player a sweet every time they score
15
Q
what is negative reinforcement?
A
an unpleasant stimulus is withdrawn when desired response occurs
Weakens S-R bond
16
Q
how can a coach use negative reinforcement to help players learn a skill?
A
a coach stops shouting the correct technique for a shoulder pass, when a good shoulder pass is made
-a coach makes the netball player do wall sits when they use incorrect technique, if use correct technique they don’t have to do wall sits
17
Q
why would a skill be considered as gross?
A
uses large muscle groups to make movement
18
Q
why would a skill be classified as fine?
A
uses small muscle groups to create precise movement
19
Q
explain when a front crawl (can be open/closed) could be classified as an open skill
A
in open water like the sea
in a competitive race when there are opponents like in Water polo
swimmer has to use perception
20
Q
define positive transfer when learning a motor skill
A
learning of one skills aids the learning/performance of another skill
21
Q
define negative transfer when learning a motor skill
A
learning of one skill inhibits the learning/performance of another skill
22
Q
What makes negative transfer likely to appear when learning skills?
A
performer misunderstanding the movement requirements
Different skills that seem to be similar
conflicting skills taught close together
23
Q
How do we minimise negative transfer?
A
draw attention to differences in the response
make sure skills are thoroughly learned before moving on
24
Q
what is meant by retention in Bandura’s model?
A
the ability to remember the model
store info in memory
25
What is meant by motor production in banduras model?
be physically able to have learned any foundation skills
26
What are factors which affect modelling?
high status
similarity
using relevant behaviour
if observer is motivated
27
outline Atkinson's & Shiffrin's MSM model
sensory memory - stimuli, up to 1 sec stored
selective attention - focus on relevant info
Relevant info passed to STM
Short term memory - 7 plus/ minus 2,
Chunking
28
evaluate the memory store model
+simple to understand, true that info repeated is stored in the LTM, explains how an individual can deal with large amounts of info
- model is too simple, doesn't explain why an individual may remember one type of info but not another, doesn't quantify how much repetition results in LTM storage
29
evaluate Craik and Lockharts levels of processing
+ explains that if we understand some information we are more likely to remember it, explains well that the longer we consider and analyse the information the more we can remember that information
- longer it takes to process doesn't lead to better recall, difficulty in defining what 'deep' processing involves, doesn't account for individual differences
30
explain how effective leadership can be met by using challedurais model
Situational ch - leader should be aware of SC
Leader needs to be aware of the member's qualities
leader needs to be aware of own qualities
the required behaviour refers to what needs to be done by the leader
the preferred behaviour refers to what the group wants the leader to do
the actual behaviour is what the leader chooses to do/ leadership style
31
explain cognitive dissonance refering to changing attitudes
emotional conflict is created
introduction of new info to challenge current belief
in order to create cognitive consonance
the more uncomfortable the individual the greater the desire to change one of the views/attitudes
32
explain factors which influence the effectiveness of persuasive communication in changing atitudes
high status persuader
the information must be accurate / make sense
the recipient needs to be open to persuasion
the place/environment where the persuasion is taking place should be where recipient feels comfortable
33
Evaluate instinct theory of aggression
+it can be natural human instinct to be aggressive, aggression can be hard to control, some are consistently aggressive
- not all humans show aggressive behaviour, too simplistic, aggression is shown by people at different times
34
define sports confidence
the belief an individual has about their ability to be successful in sport
35
What are the effects of sports confidence on participation & performance?
HIGH SC makes you more likely to achieve positive outcomes in sport
LOW SC has a negative effect on outcome
Over confidence can cause under performance
HIGH SC = more likely to take part and enjoy team activities
LOW SC = less likely to participate in sport
36
describe 4 attributes for failure in sport ?
if failure attributed to:
ability & effort (internal) -> motivation decreases
luck and task difficulty (external) -> can shield the real reasons for failure
task difficulty & ability (stable) -> failure is expected to be repeated/less motivation
luck & effort (unstable) -> performer believes outcome can change
controllable (effort/tactics) -> motivation increases as belief in change future outcome
uncontrollable attributions (luck, weather) -> motivation decreases
37
how can learned helplessness be prevented and it's effect on the performer?
cause - develop if attributes failure to internal/stable/uncontrollable reasons
prevented - if failure is attributed to external/unstable/controllable reasons
effect - lead to a performer to give up, as they have no control over the outcome
38
what can cause master orientation when experience failure and it's effect on the performer?
MO can develop if performer attributes to internal/controllable/unstable reasons
effect - motivate a performer to strive to improve and believe that they can change the outcome
39
following a win how can a coach motivate their performer using attributions?
success of winner can be attributed to internal reasons like ability or effort to build confidence and maintain motivation
this will increase the individual's effort in the future as it is their control
-> won as they tried really hard and kept working until the end of the race/game - internal/unstable
-> won because you are talented performer and put in a lot of effort into training
40
a coach attributes an athletes reason for winning to the weather and a injury of another player (external/uncontrollable)
discuss it's effectiveness
not a positive attribution
attributes success to external factors -> won't motivate or build confidence in performer
Attribute success to luck which is unstable external attribution -> changes easily -> reduce performers motivation
-> coach says game was easy which is external, stable -> not in performers control -> wasn't effort that won
attribution not develop mastery orientation
41
forming is the first stage of group development, describe the next stages of development?
storming
there might be a clear goal established within team
the team have difficulty making decisions
norming
there is either agreement in the team or conflict within the group is resolved
team members work towards a common goal
performing
group is able to perform as a team with primary goal to be team success
clear relationships established
42
what defines a group as opposed to a collection of individuals?
group has a common goal
| members interact with each other to achieve goal
43
what are methods used to eliminate aggressive tendencies in sport?
use selective attention to block out distractions e.g. another player which is provoking the performer
use of punishment or negative feedback -> receive fines & bans
remove the aggressive player from games / remove cues by changing position e.g. to substitute an aggressive GK
use positive role models to show assertion
positively reinforcing non-aggressive behaviour
44
describe social learning
we observe models and copy their behaviour - must relate to them
learning happens directly or vicariously
45
describe interactionist learning
trait-environment - interaction between personality and the environment or the reacting to an environment
changes in behaviour occur due to changes in demand of situation
personality is not stable nor predictable
46
why is goal setting important?
motivation - motivate to participate/be healthy
persistence - can encourage persistence
focus - gives direction to know what aims are
anxiety - helps to control anxiety/stress when following balanced diet, mental health
confidence - gives confidence that you know what you are doing
47
explain what is meant by state anxiety?
anxiety arising from a specific situation/cue
often due to fear of losing or failing
when arousal is high in any moment, more likely to get anxious
fear of being embarassed
48
explain what is meant by trait anxiety?
anxiety that is innate/ born with
it is generalised and felt in most situations
it is more permanent
49
describe what is meant by task-oriented leader?
leader concentrates on job to be done
more concerned with the end product
autocratic - leader has a predetermined goal
when discipline & control is needed
50
what is meant by social-oriented leadership and when would it be used in sport?
leader is concerned with interpersonal relations
democratic
shares the decision making
females prefer democratic leaders
when group members can wish to participate in decision making e.g. picking player of match by asking the whole team
51
What is meant by Laissez-faire in leadership & when would it be used?
52
what is attribution theory?
links to motivation
-the reasons, justifications and excuses that we give for winning, losing or drawing in sports competitions are likely to affect how we feel and our levels of motivation
53
what are attributions?
the perceived causes of a particular outcome
54
what is meant by self serving bias?
a persons tendency to attribute their failure to external reasons
e. g. I lost because the ball was too slippy
- an excuse for their poor performance
55
what is meant by controllability?
whether attributions are under the control of the performer or under the control of others, or whether they are uncontrollable
56
what is meant by sports confidence?
the belief or degree of certainty individuals posses about their ability to be successful in sport
57
what is meant by self efficacy?
the self confidence we have in specific situations
58
what is meant by self esteem?
the feeling of self worth that determines how valuable and competent we feel
59
what is meant by subjective perceptions of outcome?
how someone interprets their performance in sport
60
how are attributions in sport important?
they affect motivation -> future performances, future effort and even whether individual continues to participate in sport
- important to change inappropriate or unreal attributions as they need to be helpful & motivating = Attribution retraining
61
what is the process of attribution?
outcome of event -> available info -> casual attribution -> expectancy & effective response -> decision on subsequent participation
62
explain what is meant by weiners 1979 model of attribution?
identified four main reasons given for exam results
- constructed a two dimensional model which he called the locus of causality and stability
- locus of causality - whether attributions come from within the person (internal) or from the environment (external) & effects a persons feelings of pride, confidence and shame
- stability refers to whether the attribution is changeable or unchangeable & effects a persons expectations of future outcomes
- not sport specific -> problems in application to sports e.g. task difficulty changes frequently in sport especailly team games.
- use to promote reasons for sports outcomes that can be motivating
- if reasons given are stable, individual is motivated to achieve again
- sports performers who attrubute failure to external -> self serving bias
63
What is meant by the dimension of controllability?
wiener added a third dimension - controllability
- reflects the view that we have greater or lesser personal control over event outcomes
- accounts if a outcome is controllable or uncontrollable
- coaches tend to praise effort & controllable success and punish a lack of effort and controllable failures
64
what is meant by learned helplessness?
a belief that failure is invetiable and a feeling of hoplessness when face with a particular situation - specific or groups of situations - global
- specific learned helplessness e.g. i am a hopeless football player
- global LH e.g. i am hopeless at all sport
65
what leads to learned helplessness?
when low achievers attribute their failure to uncontrollable factors
-unlike high acheievers who are orientated towards mastery & see failure as a learning experience
66
what is meant by mastery orientation?
the view than an individual will be motivated by becoming an expert in skill development or sports performance
- attribute failure to internal, controllable and unstable factors such as effort -> seek to become better at an acitivity
- seek to develop competence by acquiring new skills and mastering new situations, concerned with improving their understanding of their sport
67
what is attribution retraining?
-optimises sports performance
-seeking to change learned helplessness into mastery orientation
attributions which are subjective are not desirable for future progression
-attributions need to be reassessed in order to succeed -> a person who fails should be encourage to attribute to controllable and unstable factors
68
evaluate attribution retraining?
to help those who have failed & starting to experience learned helplessness
- teachers & coaches should concentrate on the positive attributions
- if a performer feels a lack of ability, they will inevitably fail, but their attribution can be changed to 'having the wrong tactics'
- performer is dissapointed and will persist the task rather than avoid
69
what is meant by personality?
the patterns of thoughts and feelings, and the way in which we interact with our environment and other people that makes us a unique person
70
why does knowing a personality type help a coach?
lets them be aware of performers anxiety levels -> suggest intervention strategies
-knowing about personal anxiety may lead the performer to seek help to deal with state anxiety levels during a sport situation
71
what is the approach to personality refered to as?
Narrow band approach
- type a: impatience, intolerance & high levels of stress
- type b: relaxed, tolerant and low personal stress
72
what is the approach to personality refered to as?
Narrow band approach
- type a: impatience, intolerance & high levels of stress
- type b: relaxed, tolerant and low personal stress
73
what is meant by anxiety?
a negative emotional state that is closely associated with arousal
-experiencing apprehension and being aware of high arousal linked to our fears & worries
74
what is meant by state anxiety?
anxiety that is felt in a particular situation
| -two types: somatic & cognitive
75
what is meant by stable personality trait?
a personality characteristic of someone who does not swing from one emotion to another
- constant in behaviour
- remain unchangeable and predictable
76
what is meant by unstable personality trait?
referred to as 'neurotic'
- a personality characteristic of someone who is highly anxious and has unpredictable emotions
- changeable & unpredictable
77
what are examples of personality tests?
Cattel 16 personality factor questionnaire 1965
| Eyesynk
78
What is meant by extroversion?
a personality characteristic of a person who seeks social situations and likes excitement but lacks concentration
- low levels of arousal from reticular activating system -> seek external stimulation -> outgoing
- most likely team players -> lack imagination and sensitivity of individual sports performers
79
what is meant by introversion?
a personality characteristic of a person who does not seek social situations and likes peace but is good at concentrating
-high levels of arousal from RAS -> avoid external stimulation -> likely to be shy and avoid social situations
80
what is the social learning theory of personality?
personality changes with the situation and that the environment influences behaviour
- explains why we are like the people of significance to us & why twins that have been separated have different personalities
- shows our personalities are shaped by those around us and that we are more likely to adopt the personality of role models that we come into contact with
81
what is the interactionist theory of personality?
we are born with certain personality traits but some can be modified by interacting w the environment
- we have certain traits which appear consistently but other traits interact w our environment in a given situation -> affects personalities & behaviour
- explains how personalities change
82
what is the formula for the interactionist theory?
```
B=f(PE)
b- behaviour
f- function
p -personality trait
e - environment
```
83
what is the trait theory of personalities?
- personalities are underlying, predisposed, general
- suggests we are born with traits that remain the same throughout life
- unstable/stable dimension & extrovert/introvert dimension
84
what is meant by prejudice?
a preconceived opinion based on a faulty and inflexible generalisation
85
what did triandis 1977 define an attitude as?
an idea charged with emotion which predisposes a class of actions to a particular class of social situations
86
what did mednick 1975 state an attitude was?
a predisposition to act in a certain wat towards some aspect of a persons environment, including other people
87
what is meant by motivation?
the internal mechanisms and external stimuli which arouse & direct behaviour
88
what is meant by drive?
directed, motivated or energised behaviour that an individual has towards achieving a certain goal
89
why is motivation important in sport?
needs to be a drive to learn and achieve success
| -otherwise no one would acquire or develop sports skill
90
what are the three key points of motivation?
1. motivatin involves our inner drive towards achieving a goal
2. motivation depends on external pressures and rewards that we perceive in our environment
3. concerns the intensity and the direction of our behaviour
91
what is intrinsic motivation?
a term used for the internal drives to participate or too perform well
- such drive includes enjoyment and satisfaction that can be felt through playing a particular game
- personal accomplishments aswell as sense of pride are intrinsic factors
92
what is extrinsic motivation?
external factors which drive us to succeed
- external factors can be powerful in determining whether we want to learn a particular skill and whether we want to perfect it
- come in forms such as medals, badges & prizes
- reinforcement can ensure that an action is repeated
93
what is the relationship between intrinsic and extrinsic motivation?
the need to win could be seen as intrinsically and extrinsically motivating
- performer could be striving for success in order to gain satisfaction or to recieve recognition
- motivation is mixture
- Weinberg 1984 'rewards do not inherently undermine intrinsic motivation'
94
what aspects of motivation does arousal represent?
-motivation is related to intensity & direction of behaviour
| arousal represents the intensity aspect of the motivation
95
what are the physiological effects of arousal?
increase in heart rate, breathing and production of sweat
96
what does a raise in arousal cause?
a readiness to perform & can enhance performance
97
what does arousal mean in reference to behaviour?
refers to the intensity of our behaviour or the amount of drive we experience to achieve something
-in sport, an energised state that motivates us to perform in
98
what is meant by drive reduction?
an individual may be motivated to complete a task 'drive', when that drive is percieved as fulfilled then drive is reduced
99
what are the negative affects of high arousal?
lose of concentration
| feeling of overwhelm
100
what is the drive theory 1943?
Developed by Hull
the relationship between arousal and performance as linear
performance increases as arousal does
-performance depends on how a dominant learned response is intensified
101
what is the theory used to explain drive theory?
```
spence and spence 1968
P = f(HxD)
performance
function
habit
drive
-if the dominant learned response is correct then the performance will be enhanced
-can be incorrect for a beginner
-drive may reduce if the individual loses motivation -> drive reduction
```
102
where do problems within the drive theory come in?
if a performer thinks that there is no need to drive to improve, even though there may be room for improvement
103
what is the inverted u theory?
-drawback due to simplicity
Yerkes & Dodson 1908
as arousal increases so does the level of performance, but only to an optimum point, which occurs usually at moderate arousal level
-once past the optimum point, perfomance decreases
-performers may become more anxious, if over aroused
-modifies to types of activities, skill level and personality
104
how does type of activity effect inverted u theory?
if the activity to be performed involes fine-controlled movements than the arousal level needs to be fairly low for optimum performance
-if the activity to be performed involves gross movements, arousal levels need to be high
105
how does skill level effect inverted u theory?
if highly skilled, movements are controlled by motor programmes
-actions need little conscious attention & can cope with higher levels of arousal
if lowly skilled/ beginner, movemen ts will need more conscious attention & if arousal level if moderate a beginner may lose concentration or become anxious -> low arousal
106
how does personality effect inverted u theory?
personality types who enjoy high levels of exitement & extrovert, cope with high arousal
-those who are introverted will perform better with low arousal
107
what is the catastrophe theory?
Fazey & Hardy 1988
states that if arousal reaches optimum, performance level after will significantly drop
-takes into account somatic and cognitive anxiety & the interaction
-cognitive anxiety in crucial in determining the performers reactions to high levels of stress
-if cognitive anxiety is high it will help performance if somatic anxiety is low
108
how does the relationship between cognitive and somatic anxiety change in relation to performance and arousal?
if increase in cog anxiety & somatic anxiety is high -> performance declines
if there high levels of cognitive anxiety & there is a continuous increase in somatic anxiety/arousal -> performance will deteriorate
if after this catastrohpe effect, arousal decreases -> performance will improve but not back to optimum level
109
what is somatic anxiety?
anxiety experienced physiologically or of the body e.g. sweating
110
what is cognitive anxiety?
anxiety experienced by the mind e.g. worry about falling
111
what is the peak flow experience?
desribes sportsppl who achieve optimum performance levels & associate this with a particular emotional response
'in the zone'
all arousal theories show that performance is related to the amount of inner drive and self motivation
112
what is the reticular activating system?
located in central core of brainstem
maintains levels of arousal
can enhance or inhibit sensory stimuli
eyesynck 1970 -introverts dislike high arousal because RAS is stimulated
113
what is trait anxiety?
a trait that is enduring in an individual
114
what is competitive trait anxiety?
a tendency to perceive competitive situations as threatening and to respond to these situations with feelings of apprehension or tension
115
what is meant by social facilitation?
the positive influence of others, who may be watching or competing, on sports performance
116
what is meant by social inhibition?
the negative influence of others, who may be watching or competing, which leads to a decrease in sports performance
117
what is meant by team dynamics?
the processes within a group and between groups
| -complex due to internal and external influences on group performance
118
what is meant by group?
a collection of people who both share similar goals & interact with one another
119
what is the group team formation?
```
Tuckman 1965
'forming-storming-norming-performing'
1. forming
2.stormig
3. norming
4. performing
```
120
what happens during forming?
high dependence on leader for guidance & direction
- group members begin to get to know another
- little agreement on aims of teams
- team members roles are unclear
- team leader must be prepared to give strong direction
121
what happens during storming?
group decisions are difficult
attempt to establish themselves in relation to other team members
leaders might receive challenges from team members
clearer focus for teamv
strong sense of purpose
cliques form
need to focus on goals & avoid becoming distracted
leader has a more advisory or coaching role
122
what happens during norming?
more agreement
roles & responsibilities are clear and accepted
decisions which are important are made through group agreement
stronger sense of commitment and unit
more social at stage & individuals are friendly with eachother
general respect for leader & leadership is more likely to be shared
123
what happens during performing?
clear vision & aims
no interference from leader
focus on acheiving goals and team makes most of decisions against criteria agreed with leader
team members are trusted to get on with jobs
disagreements can be resolved positively
team members may ask for assistance from the leader with personal and interpersonal issues
124
what is cohesion?
concerns the motivation which attracts individuals to the group and the resistance of those members to the group breaking up
-team cohesion
125
what did festinger state in relation to cohesion?
festinger 1963
| cohesiveness is the 'total field of forces which act on members to remain in the group'
126
what are thw two dimensions of team cohesion, as proposed by Carron 1980?
- group integration, how the individual members of the group feel about the group as a whole
- individual attraction to the group, how attracted the indivudals are to the group
127
what is the model which is used to look at the relationship between the individuals in a group and group performance?
1972 steiner
Actual productivity = potential productivity - losses due to faulty processes
potential p - the best possible performance of the group, account for resource & abilities
128
what are the losses due to faulty processes in steiners model caused by?
1. Co-ordination problems - if co-ordination and timing of team members don't match, strategies will suffer
2. motivation problems - members will be putting in different amounts of effort & potential will not be realised
129
what is the Ringlemann effect?
arises when average individual performance decreases as the group size increases
-supports the loss due to faulty processes
130
What is social loafing?
when individuals in a group lose motivation appearently caused by the loss of identity in a group
-individual efforts not recognised by those who are spectating
131
why is social loafing undesirable in teams?
can make player coast through the games
| individuals feel lost in a crowd?
132
what are strategies to prevent social loafing?
highlight individual performance through feedback
support from others in the team - social support
peer pressure aids elimination and serves to reinforce individual effort
-select individuals on interactive skills
133
how does sports confidence effect our perception of sport?
if we have high sports confidence we may feel encouraged to choose an inidivual sport, which is off high intensity and put in more effort
134
what is the relationship between sports performance, participation and self esteem?
high sports confidence impacts on sports performance and motivation levels & enocourages people to make firm decisions that are likely to have positive outcomes in sport
-effects ppt as those w low sc will shy away from activities and competition, wherreas someone with high sc will engage in team games
135
how does self confidence effect self esteem levels?
proportional relationship
those w high sc -> high self esteem -> aids performance due to demand of high arousal or drive to succeed
-those w low sc -> low self-esteem and feel not good enough to participate
136
how does a childs self esteem change?
- impacted by sports experiences, relationships with parents, coaches and peers
- problems will lead into later life if not addressed
- positive self esteem is the key to psychological well-being, as childrens can cope better with losses or wins in sports and life
137
what are some enhanced coping skills are child with high self esteem will bring into later life?
reduced anxiety
optimistic outlook
fewer interpersonal problems
less chance of conforming to social pressure
138
what are children with negative self esteem likely to bring into later life?
```
depressed
have eating disorders
engage in risky behaviours
not participate in sport
be bullied or become bullies
```
139
how can self esteem be enhanced?
through positive sports experiences
140
what is vealeys model of sport confidence?
1986
investigates the relationship between motivation or competitiveness and self-confidence in sport
-situation specific and shows how sports confidence can be affected by a number of factors
141
explain more about vealeys sports confidence model?
shows that every sports person has an level of sport confidence, a trait (SC-TRAIT)
and an existing level of competitiveness - competitive orientation
-the amounts of both indicate the level of confidence in a specific situation or self efficacy during a competition (SC-state)
the level of SC state shown dictates the behaviour that is shown & skill level in performance
142
how does vealeys model explain that high level of sc affects performance?
behaciour is confident and well motivated and performance is likely to improve
-if low sc -> lack confidence -> poor performance
143
in vealeys sports confidence model what comes after the performance?
satisfaction or dissatisfaction
-these emotions are subjective perceptions of the outcome -> affect athletes confidence and competitiveness in future performances
144
how would improving a childs confidence in a sport affect their sports experience, according to vealey?
- gain confidence in at least one sport
- > enhances the general perception of sports confidence because the more sports they experience the more likely they are to be successful
- much more likely to be motivated and persist in sports acitivities
145
what is banduras theory of self efficacy?
1977
self confidence can be specific to a particular situation
-varies in from situation to situation
-ppl who expect to be confident in a particular situation are more likely to choose that activity
146
according to bandura, what do our expectations of self efficacy depend on in types of information?
1. performance accomplishments -> strongest influences, if success is experienced -> controllable factors -> self confidence is high
2. vicarious experiences -> refer to what we have observed before
3. verbal persuasion -> if encouraged, our confidence in situation may increase
4. emotional arousal -> perception of arousal levels, if controlled more confident
147
what can leadership be defined as?
an individual having enough influence over the behaviour of others to motivate them to follow the individuals own set goals
148
what can a good leader do?
motivate others
| give focus or direction to attaining goals or enjoyment
149
what are some examples of leader positions?
captain
manager
coach
team sports psychologists
150
what did Barrow 1977 see leadership as?
the behavioural process influencing individuals an groups towards set goals
- involves personal relationships
- affect motivation of individuals and groups
151
what qualities would an effective leader have?
```
good communication skills
good at the sport or have comprehensive knowledge of the sport
motivation
empathy
have a clear goal
```
152
what is an emergent leader?
-come from within the group because they are skilful or due to being selected from the team
153
what is the advantage to a emergent leader?
can win over the hearts and minds of team mates due to recognition of being on of them
-more respected due to relationships
154
what is disadvantage of an emergent leader?
may lack objectivity & have their own friendships within the group -> bias their judgements
155
what is an prescribed leader?
appointed to a team from an external source e.g. coach
156
what are the advantages of a prescribed leader?
more objective -> bring a fresh set of eyes -> creative strategies being implemented
-can carry more authority or power from others
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what are the disadvantages of a prescribed leader?
they don't share/ are unaware of team culture or ways of working or friendship groups -> delay effective decision making
158
what are the three leadership styles?
Autocratic
democratic
Laissez-faire
159
what is the autocratic leader style?
task orientated
dictatorial
make most of decisions and tend to be commanding & directing approaches
little interest in the individuals in the group
focused on end product
have a clear pre-determined
160
what is the democratic style?
person orientated -> concerned with interpersonal connections
invites contributions & shares decision making
value the views of others
share decisions and show good deal of interest of individuals in group
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what is the laissez faire style?
```
make few decisions
give little feedback
group members do as they wish
no direct influence on group
lets group make own decisions
```
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how is an autocratic leader style used?
when discipline & control are needed
if lack of time or for early stage of learning
prefered by novice, team players and males
if a situation is dangerous or task is clear and unambigous
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how is a democratic style best used?
when group members wish to participate in decision making
suits advanced performers who have a knowledge to contribute
a social or friendly matches
if situation is not dangerous
suted to small teams or individual sports ppl
164
how can laissez-faire style be used?
suitable for high-level performers or elite athletes
helps develop creativity
leader has full trust in teams capabilities
suitable if task involves individual decision making
can be adopted if leader is incompetent
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why should coaches not rely heavily on autocratic approach?
can result in hostility and deter athletes from taking on personal responsibility
166
what can reliance on democratic approach cause?
less work being done but increase the positive effects of interaction
167
what is a positive of laissez-faire?
encourages creativity amongst team members
168
what did crust 2006 find in relevance to preference of leadership styles?
novice athletes prefer more rewards anf experts prefer more democratic & social support coaching
2. team members pefer autocratic coaching and rewards, individuals sports prefer democratic
3. male athletes -> autocratic, female athletes -> democratic
4. older athletes prefer democratic
169
what are the three theories of leadership?
trait perspective
social learning theory
interactionist theory
170
what is the trait perspective of leadership?
claims leaders have a genetic disposition or innate characteristics that show leader qualities, thus lending support to the popular belief that great leaders are born & not made'
-stable traits and enduring, generalised across situations
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what does the trait perspective assume?
certain traits produce certain patterns of behaviour
these patterns are consistent across different situations
people are born with these leadership traits
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what is the social learning theory in relation to leadership?
claims that leadership characteristics are learned from others - vicarious learning
if you observe a model showing leadership behaviour and that person is of a higher status of you, we are likely to copy that behaviour
can be through coach or a player, where behaviour is modelled
shows importance of social environment for adopting leadership qualities, rather than trait - doesn't account for environment
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what is the interactionist theory in relevance to leadership?
an individual may have certain in born traits such as assertiveness, but not evidence unless a situation demands the leadership behaviour
- accounts for fact that some ppl are not generally leaders in everyday life, but can show leadership qualities in sports
- involves the interaction of traits and the changing environment
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what is the contingency approach?
the success of leadership traits is determined by situational factors
- proposes ppl in sport who posses certain traits can be more effective in some situations and less so in others
- > leadership qualities might be seen in situations of high anxiety when a team is losing
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what is a criticism of the trait theory of leadership?
its simplicity
| fails to take into account the influence of other factors, which will effect the development of successful leaders
176
what is challedurais multi-dimensional model of leadership?
1984
three factors which affect leadership: situational characteristics, leader characteristics, member characteristics
-the more elements which match, the more effective leadership is
-if leader qualities are like what they want and expect -> more likely to follow the leader
-consequences involve levels of performance of group members as well as satisfaction - how well they think they have done
177
what do the arrows between points 5 - 7 of the mdm model of leadership show?
the actual behaviour or leadership style can be modified depending on the performance and satisfaction levels of the group
178
give an example of te leadership model applied to rock climbing?
1) outdoor climbing is perceived to be dangerous for ppts
2) leader characteristics -> experienced rock climber
3) all group members are novices in rock climbing
4) the leader should adopt autocratic style & give direct instructions to group members due to the dangerous situation & them being beginners
5) an autocratic approach
6) preferred behaviour is autocratic
7) the leaders actual behaviour matches required behaviour & preferred behaviour -> group show good performance in learning to climb and experience high levels of satisfaction
