Squill Aquisition Flashcards
(121 cards)
1
Q
Define kinesthesis
A
The inner sense that gives information about body position and muscle tension
2
Q
How long is the working memory’s time capacity?
A
30 secs
3
Q
What is rough estimate for the maximum number of items the working memory can store at once ?
A
7
4
Q
What is a motor programme?
A
Important information that is stored in the LTM that contains all components of skill
5
Q
Define long term memory
A
Received information from the working term memory and has an unlimited store for motor programmes
6
Q
List methods of how to store information
A
MALES AND FEMALES CAN RUN CHARITY RACES
• Mental practice
• Association of actions (remember something from around the time learnt)
• Focus (selective attention when learning)
• Chunking (cutting skill up into smaller sections to prevent info overload)
• Rewards
• Chaining (putting movements that link together)
• Repetition
7
Q
Who made the Schema Theory and when was it made?
A
Schmidt 1982
8
Q
What is the Schema Theory ?
A
Suggests that learning a skill is done by taking existing motor programmes in LTM for core principles and adapting them to suit the environment by using the feedback from the senses.
9
Q
What are the parameters of schema ?
A
• Initial conditions - info from environment that needs to be recognised before schema is used. ‘Where am I?’
• Response specifications - info used to assess available options for performer ‘What do I need to do?’
• Sensory consequences - use of senses to to help guide the movement ‘How can I adjust?’
• Response outcome - schema may have to be adapted in the future based on the results of the skill
10
Q
Define reaction time
A
The time taken from the onset of a stimulus to the onset of a response. It involves no movement.
11
Q
Define movement time
A
The time taken to complete a task after the info processing has taken place (start to completion of movement)
12
Q
Define response time
A
The time taken from the onset of a stimulus to the completion of the task
13
Q
What is the equation for response time?
A
Response time = reaction time + movement time
14
Q
Define simple reaction time
A
Where there is one specific response to one stimulus
15
Q
Define choice reaction time
A
Choosing a response from numerous stimuli
16
Q
What is Hick’s Law?
A
As the number of of stimuli to choose increases, the longer the reaction time is. Not always a linear relationship though because becoming familiar with the environment will make the response time a little quicker.
17
Q
What is the single channel hypothesis?
A
A theory that suggests stimuli can only be processed one at a time
18
Q
What is the psychological refractory period?
A
A delay when a second stimulus has been presented before the first has been processed. The performer may ‘freeze’ to sort conflicting info.
19
Q
Define anticipation
A
The pre-judgement before a stimulus via ‘cues’ or signals from opponent for example.
20
Q
Define temporal anticipation
A
The pre-judgement of WHEN it is going to happen
21
Q
Define spatial anticipation
A
The pre-judgement of WHERE and WHAT is going to happen
22
Q
How does anticipation relate to response time
A
The correct anticipation reduces response time as the information processing is sped up - movement can occur immediately
23
Q
List ways to improve response time
A
• Mental practice
• Train specific stimulus expected in the game (e.g. opponent specific)
• Learn to focus during game to pick up stimulus early (coach make stimulus intense at training)
• Improve fitness for better reaction time - use plyometrics + interval for improved movement time
• Use anticipation - research opponent
24
Q
What are the characteristics of a skill?
A
LACEFACE
Learned
Aesthetically pleasing
Controlled
Efficient
Fluent
Accurate
Consistent
Economical
25
Define skill
The learned ability to bring about predetermined results with the minimum outlay of time, energy or both
26
Define open skill
A skill performed in an unpredictable environment
e.g. opponents
27
Define closed skill
A skill performed in a predictable environment
e.g. individual sport , no opponent
28
Define gross skill
A skill that requires large muscle groups
e.g. rugby scrum
29
Define fine skill
A skill that requires smaller muscle groups
e.g. throwing a dart
30
Define self-paced skill
A skill where the performer controls the start and pace of the skill
e.g. taking a penalty
31
Define externally-paced skill
A skill where an external factor(s) controls the start and pace
e.g. returning a shot in tennis
32
Define discrete skill
A skill that has a clear beginning and end
e.g. tennis serve
33
Define serial skill
A skill containing several discrete skills in order to form a more integrated movement
e.g. dance routine
34
Define continuous skill
A skill with no clear beginning or end and is often the end of or part of the skill that is the start of the new one. e.g. cycling / running
35
Define low-organised skill
A skill that is easily broken up into parts
e.g. swimming stroke
36
Define high-organised skill
A skill that is not easily broken down into parts
e.g. volley in football
37
Define simple skill
A skill that does not require lots of decision making
e.g. forward roll in gymnastics
38
Define complex skill
A skill that requires a lot of decision making using lots of information when performed
e.g. dribbling in hockey
39
Define transfer
The effect of learning and performance of one skill on the learning and performance of another
40
Define positive transfer
When the learning and performance of one skill aids the learning and performance of another skill
e.g. passing in netball and in basketball
41
Define negative transfer
Where the learning and performance of one skill hinders the learning and performance of another skill
e.g. serving in tennis to serving in badminton
42
Define zero transfer
When the learning and performance of one skill has no impact on the learning and performance of another skill
e.g. swim stroke and rock climbing
43
Define bilateral transfer
Where the learning and performance of one skill is passed across the body from limb to limb
e.g. shooting in football with your left foot and then onto your right foot
44
How can positive transfer be ensured?
• make training realistic to game situations e.g. rugby tackle bags
• ensure a skill is well learned before moving on
• use positive reinforcement when positive transfer is used
45
Define whole practice
Performing the skill at training, in its entirety
46
When do you use whole practice?
• when skill is fast, ballistic and discrete
• when kinesthesis is required to perform the whole task
• the skill is simple + highly organised
• performer is in autonomous stage of learning and can cope with demands of whole task
• links between sub-routines need to be maintained
47
What are the advantages of whole practice?
• allows images of all parts of the skill to be stored in the long term memory as a motor programme so there is a plan in performers mind of how to perform with success
• more realistic than other methods and encourages positive transfer between training and on the pitch
• keeps the skill consistent and helps performer keep good habits and able to perform automatically
48
What are the disadvantages of whole practice ?
• learners in the cognitive stage may not be able to cope with the demands of performing the whole skill
• performer may get fatigued doing whole skill with no break
• could suffer from info overload
49
Define whole-part-whole practice
Where the skill is assessed, identifying the weaknesses to practice then putting the skill back together
50
When would whole-part-whole practice be used?
• when beginner is doing complex task and needs to concentrate on one aspect of skill
• when a skill is highly organised but a certain aspect of the whole skill is highlighted to improve
51
What are the advantages of whole-part-whole practice ?
• can provide motivation when success of long-standing weakness is corrected
• provides immediate feedback
• fluency and integration of sub-routines can be maintained whilst errors are corrected
52
What are the disadvantages of whole-part-whole practice?
• may produce negative transfer effects if the errors that are practiced are not integrated back into the whole skill in the same training session
• time consuming
53
Define progressive part practice
Practicing the first part of the skill and gradually adding parts, sometimes called chaining
54
Define chaining
The linking of sun-routines or parts of a task, together in order, when practicing.
55
When would you use progressive part practice ?
• when the skill is low-organised
• when the skill is serial so chaining can occur
• when the skill is complex
56
What are the advantages of progressive part practice?
• focus is on one aspect of the task at a time and correct very specific weaknesses
• less fatigue as can rest
• lots of success in the small parts so more motivation and confidence in ability
57
What are the disadvantages of progressive part practice?
• time consuming
• neglecting the feel for the whole task + may ignore links between sub-routines
• if the first parts of the skill aren’t learnt well, negative transfer could occur
58
Define massed practice
Performing a skill(s) / drill with no rest intervals
59
When do you use massed practice?
• skill is discrete
• simple
• closed
60
What are the advantages of using massed practice?
• promotes fitness
• skill becomes almost automatic
• motor programmes formed to be recalled in the future
• efficient use of time
61
What are the disadvantages of massed practice?
• fatigue
• can produce negative transfer if coach doesn’t use realistic situations
• requires high motivation
62
Define distributed practice
Performing in training with rest intervals
63
When should distributed practice be used?
• skill is continuous
• performer needs a break
• skill is open - break to explain to changes in skill
• complex / externally-paced skill - break to relieve pressure and intensity
64
What are the advantages of using distributed practice?
• takes pressure off performer and allows recuperation after intense session
• reduces onset fatigue
• suitable for beginners as more controlled progress + coaching advice can be given
• offers motivation if praise is given between breaks
• intrinsic motivation when part of skill has success
• safe way to practice more dangerous activities- guidelines given
65
What are the disadvantages of distributed practice?
• time consuming
• danger of negative transfer after interval if coach doesn’t integrate session
66
Define varied practice
Changing the practice type and drills
67
When should varied practice be used ?
• skill is open
• skill is externally paced
• skill is continuous - to maintain motivation
68
What are the advantages of varied practice?
• allows players to adapt skills to their environment
• provides more fun into training so an increase in motivation
• helps build sub-routines
• helps adapt schema
69
What are the disadvantages of varied practice?
• time consuming
• danger of negative transfer unless drills are integrated
• may place unnecessary demands on performer as loads to focus on - fatigue
70
Define mental practice
Going over the skill in your mind without movement
71
When is mental practice used?
• part of a warm up to prepare for task ahead
• games player may rehearse skill / play before KO
72
What are the advantages of using mental practice ?
• improved confidence
• lowers anxiety levels
• stimulates muscle receptors - decreased response time
• develops cognitive ability and improves decision making
73
Define the cognitive stage of learning
The first stage of learning used by a novice. Trial and error is what explores understanding and sub-routines. The performer may use extrinsic feedback to guide them. Motor programmes not formed.
74
Define the associative stage of learning
The second stage of learning as motor programmes are developed and performance is smoother. It is of a longer duration than the cognitive stage. To make progress in this stage, a lot of practice is required. Feedback is more intrinsic as they compare themselves to elite players and adjust their technique.
75
What is the autonomous stage of learning
The final stage of learning used by elite athletes, where movement is detailed and specific. All motor programmes fully developed, making skills fluent, efficient and almost automatic in nature but practice is required to maintain this standard.
76
Define feedback
Information to aid error correction
77
Define positive feedback
Entails information about what was good, providing motivation to maintain effort. Often combined with praise.
78
Define negative feedback
Entails information as to what is going wrong so errors can be corrected and bad habits are eliminated - more appreciated with more experience
79
Define extrinsic feedback
Entails information from an outside source - needed more so for beginners as they may not know what is good / bad
80
Define intrinsic feedback
Entails info from within - used by elite athletes as they have developed a sense of kinesthesis so they know what they have done wrong
81
Define knowledge of results
Information that comes as an initial outcome of the attempted skill e.g. did the pass reach the target?
82
Define knowledge of performance
Information that is an analysis of the performance e.g. why did the pass not reach the target?
83
What is a plateau?
A period of no improvement in performance
84
List the causes of of the learning plateau
1. Lack of motivation
2. Boredom
3. Coaching
4. Limit of ability
5. Targets set too low
6. Fatigue
85
List the possible solutions to the learning plateau
• task extended to set new and higher targets and goals
• find new coach
• coach offer more praise and positive reinforcement for motivation
• take rest
• add variety to task
• explain concept of plateau so they don’t allow their performance to follow the trend
• get feedback
86
What is visual guidance?
Guidance that can be seen, a demonstration. Used for beginners, creating mental picture in their head if what the skill looks like. Should be seen within capabilities of player, should be another player demonstrating of similar ability to maintain motivation. Should be shown from different angles and mental rehearsal should be used.
87
What are the advantages of visual guidance?
• can be used to highlight weakness
• in conjunction with verbal guidance
• creates mental image
88
What are the disadvantages of visual guidance?
• must be completely correct or could be copied incorrectly
• too much information could confuse the performer
89
What is verbal guidance?
An explanation of how to perform a skill. This aids visual guidance to create better image in performer’s head. Used for both beginners and elite athletes (more technical and tactical points and feedback given)
90
What are the advantages of verbal guidance?
• aids visual guidance to create a better image in performer’s head
• technical terms can be used for more experienced players
• appropriate for performers of all levels
91
What are the disadvantages of verbal guidance ?
• too much info = info overload = confusion
• if it is not brief, player can lose concentration
• language of coach needs to be understandable especially beginners e.g. not using as technical terms
• feedback: coach needs to consider what type is needed for what performer
92
What is manual guidance?
Physical support given to a performer to aid completion of skill/part of skill.
93
What are the advantages of manual guidance?
• reduces danger
• build confidence of performer who can’t get feel of skill with no support
• fear and anxiety reduced
94
What are the disadvantages of manual guidance?
• can become too reliant on the support
• lose confidence when attempting without support
95
What is mechanical guidance?
An artificial aid to help complete a skill/part of a skill.
96
What are the advantages of mechanical guidance?
• builds confidence
• eliminates danger
• gives an early feel for the skill
• can be used for disabled athletes or those recovering from injury
97
What are the disadvantages of mechanical guidance?
• if used for too long, can affect the feel of the skill
• performer becomes too dependent on it
• motivation lost if they aren’t performing skill independently.
98
What is operant conditioning?
The use of reinforcement to ensure the correct responses are repeated
99
Who’s pioneering work came to operant conditioning and when was it done?
Skinner in 1948
100
What is a satisfied?
An action that promotes a pleasant feeling so actions are repeated
101
What is an annoyed?
An action that creates unease to promote avoidance of the incorrect response
102
Define positive reinforcement
A pleasant stimulus after the correct response e.g. rewards like swimming 25m in a pool is given a certificate to provide motivation to have more success
103
Define negative reinforcement
Taking away an unpleasant stimulus after the correct response e.g. negative criticism / shouting stops when the correct technique of a skill is being performed, to encourage repetition of that technique
104
Define punishment
An unpleasant stimulus to prevent incorrect actions reoccurring e.g. red card in football
105
Who researched observational learning and when did they do it?
Albert Bandura in 1977
106
What is the concept of observational learning?
It suggests that both acceptable and unacceptable behaviour can be learned by watching and copying others.
107
What did Bandura say the 4 factors were that were needed to increase the probability of a performer copying a model?
1. Attention
2. Retention
3. Motor production
4. Motivation
108
What is attention and how does it increase the likelihood of someone copying a model?
• Attention = making the demonstration attractive to the performer
• by making the demonstration loud, clear, bright, accurate it will make it more memorable for the performer
• explain why they should perform this skill attracts them to remember it in a game situation
109
What is retention and how does it increase the likelihood of someone copying a model?
• retention = remembering the demonstration and being able to recall it
• breaking info in smaller chunks and repeating it ensures they have a high chance of remembering it all
• using a role model performing the skill makes sure it is completely accurate and easier to remember - straight after this demonstration, make sure they attempt the skill as it is fresh in their mind
110
What is motor production and how does it increase the likelihood of someone copying a model?
• motor production = having the mental and physical ability to do the task
• making easy tasks allows success before moving on to make progress
111
What is motivation and how does it increase the likelihood of someone copying a model?
• motivation = having the drive to perform a task / copy the task
• by using praise / positive feedback and reinforcement when copying tasks, it motivates the player to do this more
112
What are the additional factors contributing to the likelihood of copying a skill?
• task is appropriate to social norms / performed by others of similar abilities
• they are reinforced
• they are powerful (visually and physically)
• they are consistent
• they are relevant
113
Who looked at the social development theory and when did they do this ?
Vygotsky in 1978
114
What is social development?
Learning by association with others
115
Define inter-psychological learning
Learning from others externally e.g. skills learned from a coach
116
Define intra-psychological learning
Once absorbed externally e.g. from a coach, it is the learning that comes from within.
117
What is Vygotky’s theory of constructivism?
Building on what you know in order to learn
118
What is the zone of proximal development and what are the stages?
• it is the next stage of learning based on the performer’s needs, expectations and current level performance
• stages are:
- what can I do alone?
- what can I do with help?
- what can I not do yet?
119
Who suggested the theory of Insight learning?
A group of German psychologists called ‘Gestalts’
120
What is Insight learning?
Using experience and understanding to solve problems relating to the whole skill
121
What are the advantages of Insight learning?
• concentrates on whole,task so is realistic for game situations
• as problem is worked out by the athlete = self-satisfaction and intrinsic motivation
• develops cognitive process as they think for themselves
• better than a coach teaching them as they fully understand the reasons for performing task
• generate specific role for performer
