Statistics

Question 1

What are the two types of approaches to making sense of psychological phenomena?

Answer 1

P-Grammar and M-Grammar

P-Grammar is person-focused and idiographic, while M-Grammar is molecule-focused and nomothetic.

Question 2

What does RDA stand for in the context of psychological methodologies?

Answer 2

RDA2, RDA2, and RDA3

These are specific methods that will be learned over the next three years.

Question 3

Define epistemology in the context of psychological approaches.

Answer 3

A theory of knowledge

Epistemology concerns how we understand and interpret knowledge in psychology.

Question 4

Define ontology in the context of psychological approaches.

Answer 4

What we believe we know to be true

Ontology refers to the nature of reality and existence as understood in psychology.

Question 5

What does P-Grammar focus on?

Answer 5

Person-focused

P-Grammar is associated with social sciences and idiographic approaches.

Question 6

What does M-Grammar focus on?

Answer 6

Molecule-focused

M-Grammar is associated with natural sciences and nomothetic approaches.

Question 7

True or False: The methodologies used in psychology are independent of one’s perspective.

Answer 7

False

The methodologies and theories formed are determined by one’s perspective.

Question 8

Fill in the blank: P-Grammar is associated with _______ sciences.

Answer 8

social

P-Grammar emphasizes individual cases and qualitative methods.

Question 9

Fill in the blank: M-Grammar is associated with _______ sciences.

Answer 9

natural

M-Grammar emphasizes general laws and quantitative methods.

Question 10

What is the primary assumption of the nomothetic approach in psychology?

Answer 10

For things to be understood, they need to be observable and measurable

This approach leads to laws that are predictable and generalizable.

Question 11

What does the nomothetic approach assume about mental processes?

Answer 11

Mental processes can be explained in universal terms and applied to all subjects

Question 12

According to the nomothetic approach, what is the focus of psychological study?

Answer 12

The individual, rather than the (social) group

Question 13

True or False: The nomothetic approach considers psychological processes to be observable and measurable.

Answer 13

True

Question 14

Fill in the blank: The nomothetic approach is driven by _______ assumptions.

Answer 14

[positivist]

Question 15

What does the idiographic approach in psychology emphasize?

Answer 15

The importance of social and cultural context in understanding psychological processes

This approach suggests that universal laws are not appropriate due to the variability of psychological phenomena.

Question 16

What are the key assumptions of the idiographic approach?

Answer 16

• Psychological phenomena vary from time to time
• Psychological phenomena are culturally determined
• Understanding psychological processes requires understanding the intention behind them
• Psychological processes are influenced by social phenomena

These assumptions highlight the necessity of considering social influence in psychological understanding.

Question 17

True or False: The idiographic approach supports the idea of universal psychological laws.

Answer 17

False

The idiographic approach argues that universal laws are not appropriate for understanding individual psychological processes.

Question 18

Fill in the blank: The idiographic approach asserts that psychological processes are influenced by _______.

Answer 18

[social phenomena]

This emphasizes the need to consider social influences in psychological studies.

Question 19

What must one understand to comprehend psychological processes according to the idiographic approach?

Answer 19

The intention behind the psychological processes

Understanding intention is crucial in this approach to grasp how psychological phenomena manifest.

Question 20

What are the two methodological approaches mentioned?

Answer 20

Qualitative (discursive) and Quantitative

Qualitative is text-based, while Quantitative emphasizes empirical measurement.

Question 21

What does the qualitative approach emphasize?

Answer 21

Analysis of meaning and understanding of social context

It does not allow for generalizations or simple explanations.

Question 22

What is the main focus of the quantitative approach?

Answer 22

Empirical measurement of behavior to establish patterns and laws

It aims for universal and generalizable conclusions.

Question 23

Fill in the blank: The qualitative approach deals with _______.

Answer 23

qualities

Question 24

Fill in the blank: The quantitative approach deals with _______.

Answer 24

quantities

Question 25

True or False: The qualitative approach offers simple or reductionist explanations.

Answer 25

False

Question 26

True or False: The quantitative approach considers social context.

Answer 26

False

Question 27

What does the qualitative approach require for understanding behavior?

Answer 27

An understanding of social context ## Footnote This approach provides complex explanations.

Question 28

What type of explanations does the quantitative approach offer?

Answer 28

Simple explanations of behavior ## Footnote It often reduces laws to the individual level.

Question 29

What is the purpose of experiments in research?

Answer 29

To measure how different circumstances affect behaviour in a controlled environment to address a hypothesis.

Question 30

What type of data is typically collected in experiments?

Answer 30

Quantitative data, e.g., reaction time to a stimulus, accuracy of memory or perceptual discrimination.

Question 31

How is quantitative data analysed in experiments?

Answer 31

Using statistical tests that permit inferential testing of a hypothesis.

Question 32

Which principles underpin the analysis of behaviour in experiments?

Answer 32

The principles of generality, determinism, predictability, and simplicity.

Question 33

Fill in the blank: Experiments are underpinned by the principles of _______.

Answer 33

[generality, determinism, predictability, simplicity]

Question 34

True or False: Experiments aim to provide complex explanations for data.

Answer 34

False

Question 35

What does it mean for behaviour to be deterministic in the context of experiments?

Answer 35

It means that behaviour is predictable based on certain circumstances.

Question 36

What is the most likely explanation for data according to experimental principles?

Answer 36

The simplest explanation is most likely the correct one.

Question 37

What is a survey?

Answer 37

A means of collecting large amounts of data from participants using self-report questionnaires ## Footnote Surveys are commonly used in various fields, including psychology, to gather information on individual differences.

Question 38

In which field is survey research primarily situated?

Answer 38

Psychometrics ## Footnote Psychometrics focuses on measuring psychological constructs and individual differences, such as intelligence.

Question 39

What does survey research measure?

Answer 39

Individual variation on a known psychological construct ## Footnote Surveys can also help define constructs and their factors.

Question 40

What types of statistical techniques are used in survey analysis?

Answer 40

Descriptive and inferential techniques ## Footnote Examples include correlation and regression analyses.

Question 41

True or False: Surveys can only explore known psychological constructs.

Answer 41

False ## Footnote Surveys can also help define constructs and their factors.

Question 42

Fill in the blank: Surveys are used to collect data through _______.

Answer 42

self-report questionnaires ## Footnote Self-report questionnaires allow participants to provide their own answers and insights.

Question 43

What is the purpose of using surveys in psychological research?

Answer 43

To explore or explain individual differences ## Footnote This can help in understanding variations in psychological constructs.

Question 44

What are methods that are interpretive of psychological phenomena?

Answer 44

Methods that include the influences of time and social context ## Footnote These methods recognize the complexity of human experience and the importance of context in understanding psychological phenomena.

Question 45

What is the principle behind lived experience in interpretive methods?

Answer 45

Lived experience has meaning and intentionality and cannot be simplified ## Footnote This principle emphasizes the need for understanding experiences within a broader social context.

Question 46

What types of data are used in interpretive psychological methods?

Answer 46

Data include: * Interviews * Self-reports * Biography * Visual data ## Footnote These data types help address complex questions and issues not suitable for other methods.

Question 47

What does analysis in interpretive methods involve?

Answer 47

Making sense of discourse through the aggregation of themes into complex narratives ## Footnote This process allows for a deeper understanding of the psychological phenomena being studied.

Question 48

True or False: Interpretive methods in psychology can simplify lived experiences.

Answer 48

False ## Footnote Interpretive methods emphasize the complexity and context of lived experiences rather than simplifying them.

Question 49

What is deontological ethics?

Answer 49

A rule-based ethical philosophy where the correctness of an action lies in itself, not its consequences. ## Footnote E.g. lying is always considered wrong, regardless of the outcome.

Question 50

In consequentialism, how is the correctness of an action determined?

Answer 50

By its intended consequences. ## Footnote E.g. lying is deemed acceptable if done for the 'right' reasons, such as protecting someone from harm.

Question 51

What does virtue ethics emphasize?

Answer 51

Character and practical wisdom. ## Footnote It focuses on what kind of person one should be.

Question 52

Fill in the blank: In virtue ethics, an honest person would not lie because doing so would not feel _______.

Answer 52

right

Question 53

True or False: In deontological ethics, the outcome of an action is the primary factor in determining its morality.

Answer 53

False

Question 54

What ethical philosophy suggests that lying can be good if it is done for the right reasons?

Answer 54

Consequentialism

Question 55

Fill in the blank: Deontological ethics is also known as _______-based ethics.

Answer 55

rule

Question 56

What is applied when ethical problems arise?

Answer 56

A cost-benefit analysis ## Footnote This analysis evaluates the negative consequences of research against its positive outcomes.

Question 57

What are the benefits in the context of ethical decision making?

Answer 57

The potentially positive consequences of the research for the participants or society ## Footnote Benefits often extend beyond individual participants to societal impacts.

Question 58

What does cost-benefit analysis provide?

Answer 58

A framework for making ethical decisions ## Footnote This framework helps to systematically evaluate the implications of research decisions.

Question 59

What type of judgments does cost-benefit analysis involve?

Answer 59

Subjective judgments about costs and benefits ## Footnote These judgments can vary between individuals based on personal values and perspectives.

Question 60

True or False: Consequences of research can always be anticipated.

Answer 60

False ## Footnote Examples such as Zimbardo and Milgram illustrate the unpredictability of research outcomes.

Question 61

What is the first step in the ethical decision-making model?

Answer 61

Generate alternative decisions ## Footnote This step involves brainstorming various options to address the ethical issue at hand.

Question 62

What comes after generating alternative decisions in the ethical decision-making model?

Answer 62

Enumerate consequences of making each decision ## Footnote This step requires assessing the potential outcomes of each alternative decision.

Question 63

What is the final step in the ethical decision-making model?

Answer 63

Implement the decision ## Footnote This involves putting the chosen decision into action.

Question 64

True or False: The ethical decision-making model includes a step for making the decision.

Answer 64

True ## Footnote Making the decision is a critical part of the ethical decision-making process.

Question 65

What does the BPS Code of ethics outline?

Answer 65

Four main principles to guide ethical behaviour: * Respect * Competence * Responsibility * Integrity ## Footnote The BPS Code of Ethics provides a framework for ethical conduct in psychology.

Question 66

What is the first principle of the BPS Code of ethics?

Answer 66

Respect ## Footnote This principle emphasizes the importance of valuing the dignity and worth of individuals.

Question 67

What is the second principle of the BPS Code of ethics?

Answer 67

Competence ## Footnote This principle requires psychologists to maintain high standards of professional competence.

Question 68

What is the third principle of the BPS Code of ethics?

Answer 68

Responsibility ## Footnote This principle involves the obligation to act in the best interest of clients and society.

Question 69

What is the fourth principle of the BPS Code of ethics?

Answer 69

Integrity ## Footnote This principle stresses the importance of honesty and transparency in professional practices.

Question 70

What is one key ethical principle related to respect?

Answer 70

General Respect ## Footnote This includes acknowledging individual, cultural, and role differences.

Question 71

What should be avoided to maintain ethical practices?

Answer 71

Unfair / prejudiced practices ## Footnote This ensures fairness and equality in treatment.

Question 72

What is essential to protect clients' information?

Answer 72

Privacy and Confidentiality ## Footnote This involves safeguarding sensitive information from unauthorized access.

Question 73

What is necessary for ethical record keeping?

Answer 73

Consent ## Footnote Clients must give permission for their information to be recorded and stored.

Question 74

What is a critical component of informed consent?

Answer 74

Understanding of nature, purpose, and consequences ## Footnote Clients should fully grasp what their participation entails.

Question 75

When is withholding information acceptable?

Answer 75

When informed consent cannot be obtained ## Footnote This may occur in specific circumstances where disclosure may harm the client.

Question 76

What right do clients have regarding their participation?

Answer 76

Right to withdraw ## Footnote Clients can choose to discontinue their participation at any time.

Question 77

What must be considered regarding a client's capacity?

Answer 77

Capacity for informed consent ## Footnote It is crucial to assess if the client can understand and agree to the consent.

Question 78

What ethical action must be taken regarding data after a client withdraws?

Answer 78

Destruction of data ## Footnote Any personal data must be securely destroyed to protect client confidentiality.

Question 79

What should professionals develop regarding ethics?

Answer 79

A comprehensive awareness of ethics ## Footnote This includes understanding the ethical implications of their actions and decisions.

Question 80

How should ethical awareness be integrated into professional activities?

Answer 80

By incorporating ethical considerations in decision-making processes ## Footnote This ensures that professionals act responsibly and ethically in their work.

Question 81

What is a key aspect of ethical decision making?

Answer 81

Recognising that ethical dilemmas will arise ## Footnote Professionals must be prepared to face and address these dilemmas appropriately.

Question 82

What is an important responsibility for professionals in ethical practice?

Answer 82

Accept responsibility ## Footnote Professionals are accountable for their ethical decisions and actions.

Question 83

What should professionals recognize about their competence?

Answer 83

The limits of their competence ## Footnote Practicing within these limits is crucial for ethical practice.

Question 84

What should professionals do when their competence is impaired?

Answer 84

Refrain from practice ## Footnote This ensures that they do not compromise the quality of care or service.

Question 85

What action should professionals take if they recognize their impairment?

Answer 85

Monitor their own lifestyle to remain alert to signs of impairment ## Footnote Awareness of personal well-being is essential for maintaining professional competence.

Question 86

When should professionals seek consultation and supervision?

Answer 86

When indicated ## Footnote This can help them navigate ethical dilemmas and improve their practice.

Question 87

What areas should professionals engage in?

Answer 87

Only those within their skills, obtaining, and education ## Footnote This guards against unethical practice and promotes professional integrity.

Question 88

What is a fundamental ethical principle regarding responsibility?

Answer 88

General Responsibility ## Footnote General responsibility includes avoiding harm to clients and maintaining professional integrity.

Question 89

What should be avoided to maintain ethical responsibility?

Answer 89

Personal and professional misconduct ## Footnote Such misconduct could bring the Society into disrepute.

Question 90

What is a key consideration for researchers regarding their own safety?

Answer 90

Be mindful of potential risks to yourself ## Footnote Researchers should assess the risks they may face during their work.

Question 91

What ethical consideration should be taken for research participants?

Answer 91

Protection of Research Participants ## Footnote This includes ensuring their safety and well-being during the research process.

Question 92

From whose standpoint should all research be considered?

Answer 92

Participants ## Footnote Researchers must prioritize the views and welfare of participants.

Question 93

What should researchers refrain from using as compensation?

Answer 93

Financial compensation ## Footnote It is advised to avoid financial incentives to ensure ethical standards.

Question 94

What type of approval is necessary before conducting research?

Answer 94

Considered and objective approval of independent advisors ## Footnote This ensures that research meets ethical standards.

Question 95

What should clients be informed of during the first contact?

Answer 95

They may decline to answer any questions ## Footnote This respects the autonomy and comfort of clients.

Question 96

What is an important step to take after research is conducted?

Answer 96

Debrief ## Footnote Debriefing helps participants understand the study and its outcomes.

Question 97

What are the four main principles outlined in the BPS Code of human research ethics (2021)?

Answer 97

* Respect for the autonomy, privacy and dignity of individuals and communities * Scientific integrity * Social Responsibility * Maximizing benefit and minimizing harm ## Footnote These principles guide ethical decision-making in research involving human participants.

Question 98

Define 'Respect for the autonomy, privacy, and dignity of individuals and communities'.

Answer 98

This principle emphasizes the importance of acknowledging and honoring the rights and freedoms of research participants. ## Footnote It includes obtaining informed consent and ensuring confidentiality.

Question 99

What does 'Scientific integrity' refer to in research ethics?

Answer 99

It refers to the commitment to conducting research honestly, transparently, and without fabrication or falsification of data. ## Footnote This principle ensures the credibility and reliability of research findings.

Question 100

Explain the principle of 'Social Responsibility' in the context of research ethics.

Answer 100

This principle involves considering the broader impact of research on society and ensuring that research contributes positively to the community. ## Footnote Researchers are encouraged to address societal issues and promote welfare.

Question 101

Fill in the blank: The principle of _______ emphasizes maximizing benefits and minimizing harm in research.

Answer 101

Maximizing benefit and minimizing harm

Question 102

What is the main characteristic of Probability Sampling?

Answer 102

It is possible to determine the probability that a participant will be sampled from a population

Question 103

List the types of Probability Sampling.

Answer 103

* Random * Systematic * Stratified * Cluster * Multi-stage sampling

Question 104

What is a key feature of Non-Probability Sampling?

Answer 104

Members of a population may not have an equal probability of being sampled

Question 105

List the types of Non-Probability Sampling.

Answer 105

* Convenience/Opportunity * Quota * Snowball

Question 106

True or False: In Probability Sampling, every member of the population has an equal chance of being selected.

Answer 106

True

Question 107

Fill in the blank: In Non-Probability Sampling, the sampling methods include _______.

Answer 107

[Convenience/Opportunity, Quota, Snowball]

Question 108

Which sampling method allows for the calculation of selection probability?

Answer 108

Probability Sampling

Question 109

What is a random sampling method?

Answer 109

Select participants at random (e.g., phone book) ## Footnote Random sampling ensures that every individual has an equal chance of being selected.

Question 110

What does systematic sampling involve?

Answer 110

Select every 'nth' person from the population ## Footnote This method can help ensure a spread of participants across the population.

Question 111

Define stratified sampling

Answer 111

Similar to systematic but tries to reflect the characteristics of the population ## Footnote Stratified sampling ensures representation from various subgroups within the population.

Question 112

What is convenience (opportunity) sampling?

Answer 112

Recruit whoever is available/whoever volunteers ## Footnote This method may lead to bias as it does not ensure a representative sample.

Question 113

Describe quota sampling

Answer 113

Select whoever volunteers with specific characteristics ## Footnote Quota sampling aims to fill a predetermined number of participants from certain subgroups.

Question 114

What is snowball sampling?

Answer 114

Ask participants to mention the study to those they know ## Footnote This method is often used in populations that are hard to reach or identify.

Question 115

What does WEIRD stand for in psychological research?

Answer 115

Western, Educated, Industrialized, Rich, Democratic

Question 116

What percentage of the world's population is considered WEIRD?

Answer 116

Approximately 12%

Question 117

What demographic is most commonly represented in psychological research participants?

Answer 117

Young (18-21 years) and female undergraduate students

Question 118

True or False: The majority of psychological research participants are representative of the global population.

Answer 118

False

Question 119

What significant implications may arise from the overrepresentation of WEIRD participants in research?

Answer 119

Implications for psychological theory and understanding

Question 120

Fill in the blank: The majority of participants in psychological research are _______.

Answer 120

WEIRD

Question 121

What is a survey?

Answer 121

Surveys are tools that allow us to ask questions and (typically) get a numeric response ## Footnote Surveys can be used in various fields to gather quantitative data.

Question 122

What types of things can surveys measure?

Answer 122

Surveys can measure: * Attitudes * Opinions * Variables less easy to measure using other methods (e.g., intelligence, personality) ## Footnote Surveys are versatile tools in research.

Question 123

What is the common format used in surveys to gather responses?

Answer 123

Most surveys employ questionnaires that require a response from a set of options on an ordinal scale (e.g., Likert Scale) ## Footnote The Likert Scale is commonly used for measuring attitudes and opinions.

Question 124

In psychological research, what is the role of surveys?

Answer 124

Surveys in psychological research are a form of psychometric assessment ## Footnote Psychometric assessments help quantify psychological variables.

Question 125

True or False: Surveys can only measure easily quantifiable variables.

Answer 125

False ## Footnote Surveys can also measure complex variables like personality and intelligence.

Question 126

Fill in the blank: Surveys typically get a _______ response.

Answer 126

numeric response ## Footnote This allows for quantitative analysis of the collected data.

Question 127

What is Psychometrics?

Answer 127

The science of assessment ## Footnote Psychometrics involves various methods of measuring psychological attributes.

Question 128

List some types of assessments we are exposed to.

Answer 128

* Height * Weight * Blood pressure * Driving tests * Essays * Personality tests ## Footnote These assessments can vary in their focus and methodology.

Question 129

What are directly observable features in assessments?

Answer 129

Features that can be measured without inference ## Footnote Examples include height and weight.

Question 130

What are proxy measures?

Answer 130

Measures that indirectly assess a construct ## Footnote Proxy measures are used when direct measurement is not possible.

Question 131

What do we mean by unobservable constructs in assessments?

Answer 131

Attributes or traits that cannot be directly measured ## Footnote Examples include intelligence or personality.

Question 132

Fill in the blank: Psychometrics is the science of _______.

Answer 132

[assessment]

Question 133

True or False: Personality tests are considered a type of psychometric assessment.

Answer 133

True ## Footnote Personality tests assess psychological traits and characteristics.

Question 134

What is psychometrics?

Answer 134

Psychometrics is any type of measure that has been developed that measures unobservable constructs (e.g. conscientiousness) ## Footnote Psychometrics plays a crucial role in psychology, education, and various fields requiring measurement of psychological traits.

Question 135

What are the two main bases for psychometric measures?

Answer 135

* Theory Based * Statistics Based ## Footnote These bases ensure that measures are both conceptually sound and empirically validated.

Question 136

What is True Score Theory also known as?

Answer 136

Latent trait theory ## Footnote True Score Theory is fundamental in psychometrics for understanding the relationship between observed scores and true scores.

Question 137

What is a key procedure in developing psychometric measures?

Answer 137

There is a procedure for developing psychometric measures ## Footnote This procedure often involves multiple stages, including item generation, testing, and validation.

Question 138

True or False: Psychometric measures can only be developed based on theory.

Answer 138

False ## Footnote Psychometric measures can be developed based on both theory and statistics.

Question 139

Fill in the blank: Psychometric development is based on _______.

Answer 139

[True Score Theory] ## Footnote This theory underlies many psychometric methods and practices in measurement.

Question 140

What is an example of an unobservable construct that psychometrics measures?

Answer 140

Conscientiousness ## Footnote Conscientiousness is a personality trait that can influence various life outcomes, making it an important construct in psychometrics.

Question 141

What is psychometrics?

Answer 141

Psychometrics is any type of measure that has been developed that measures unobservable constructs (e.g. conscientiousness) ## Footnote Psychometrics plays a crucial role in psychology, education, and various fields requiring measurement of psychological traits.

Question 142

What are the two main bases for psychometric measures?

Answer 142

* Theory Based * Statistics Based ## Footnote These bases ensure that measures are both conceptually sound and empirically validated.

Question 143

What is True Score Theory also known as?

Answer 143

Latent trait theory ## Footnote True Score Theory is fundamental in psychometrics for understanding the relationship between observed scores and true scores.

Question 144

What is a key procedure in developing psychometric measures?

Answer 144

There is a procedure for developing psychometric measures ## Footnote This procedure often involves multiple stages, including item generation, testing, and validation.

Question 145

True or False: Psychometric measures can only be developed based on theory.

Answer 145

False ## Footnote Psychometric measures can be developed based on both theory and statistics.

Question 146

Fill in the blank: Psychometric development is based on _______.

Answer 146

[True Score Theory] ## Footnote This theory underlies many psychometric methods and practices in measurement.

Question 147

What is an example of an unobservable construct that psychometrics measures?

Answer 147

Conscientiousness ## Footnote Conscientiousness is a personality trait that can influence various life outcomes, making it an important construct in psychometrics.

Question 148

What are self-report questionnaires?

Answer 148

Used to further understand behaviour and inner experience

Question 149

What is the purpose of self-report questionnaires?

Answer 149

A way to quantify an aspect of the self

Question 150

How do self-report questionnaires typically collect responses?

Answer 150

Involve a set of statements which are responded to on a scale

Question 151

How are responses to self-report questionnaires processed?

Answer 151

Responses are scored

Question 152

What is a key characteristic of scoring in self-report questionnaires?

Answer 152

Individually or for a group

Question 153

What is a common use of self-report questionnaires in group settings?

Answer 153

To separate extroverts from introverts

Question 154

What must be tested for self-report questionnaire scales?

Answer 154

Reliability

Question 155

What is another important aspect of self-report questionnaires besides reliability?

Answer 155

Validity

Question 156

What constructs have scales been developed for in self-report questionnaires?

Answer 156

Body image and self-esteem

Question 157

Name a specific self-report scale that measures self-esteem.

Answer 157

Rosenberg's Self-Esteem Scale (RSES)

Question 158

Fill in the blank: The _______ is a scale developed to measure self-objectification.

Answer 158

Self-objectification scale

Question 159

What is the full name of the scale abbreviated as ROBCS?

Answer 159

Revised Objectified Body Consciousness Scale

Question 160

Who developed the Revised Objectified Body Consciousness Scale?

Answer 160

Quinn and Lewis, 2005

Question 161

What are the two very important concepts in keeping measurement error to a minimum?

Answer 161

Reliability and Validity ## Footnote These concepts are essential for ensuring accurate measurements in research.

Question 162

Define reliability in the context of measurement tools.

Answer 162

Reliability refers to whether the tool measures the construct consistently across different situations. ## Footnote This means that repeated measurements under consistent conditions should yield similar results.

Question 163

Define validity in the context of measurement tools.

Answer 163

Validity refers to whether the tool measures what it is supposed to measure. ## Footnote It assesses whether the measurement accurately reflects the concept being studied.

Question 164

True or False: Validity and reliability are the same concepts.

Answer 164

False ## Footnote They represent different aspects of measurement quality.

Question 165

Fill in the blank: _______ refers to whether a measurement tool yields consistent results across different situations.

Answer 165

[Reliability]

Question 166

Fill in the blank: _______ assesses whether a tool measures what it is intended to measure.

Answer 166

[Validity]

Question 167

What is reliability in measurement?

Answer 167

Reliability is the ability to measure a construct consistently or that it has a low error rate. ## Footnote Reliability indicates the stability and consistency of a measurement over time and across different scenarios.

Question 168

Why is establishing reliability easier in physical sciences compared to psychological constructs?

Answer 168

In physical sciences, reliability can be easily established, for example, measuring height with a ruler can be verified against other scales. ## Footnote In contrast, psychological constructs are more subjective and complex, making reliability harder to ensure.

Question 169

What is Cronbach's alpha used for?

Answer 169

Cronbach's alpha is used to measure internal consistency, specifically how well do questions in a questionnaire correlate with one another. ## Footnote A higher Cronbach's alpha indicates better internal consistency among the items in the questionnaire.

Question 170

What does the test-retest method evaluate?

Answer 170

The test-retest method evaluates whether a questionnaire yields a similar score at two different time points. ## Footnote This method helps assess the stability of the measure over time.

Question 171

Fill in the blank: Reliability is the ability to measure a construct _______.

Answer 171

[consistently]

Question 172

True or False: Some level of error can be acceptable when measuring psychological constructs.

Answer 172

True ## Footnote The acceptable level of error can vary depending on the context and purpose of the measurement.

Question 173

List two methods to test reliability.

Answer 173

* Cronbach's alpha * Test-retest

Question 174

What does validity mean in the context of a test score?

Answer 174

It measures what it says it measures ## Footnote Validity is crucial for ensuring the accuracy of test scores and the inferences drawn from them.

Question 175

According to APA, how is a test defined as valid?

Answer 175

A test is valid to the extent that inferences made from it are appropriate, meaningful and useful ## Footnote This definition emphasizes the importance of the implications derived from test results.

Question 176

What is face validity?

Answer 176

Does it look right? ## Footnote Face validity refers to the superficial appearance of a test and whether it seems to measure what it claims to measure.

Question 177

Define content validity.

Answer 177

The test corresponds to the construct (content validity index) ## Footnote Content validity ensures that the test covers the relevant content area comprehensively.

Question 178

What does criterion-related validity assess?

Answer 178

Does it work against other similar measures? ## Footnote This form of validity examines how well one measure predicts an outcome based on another measure.

Question 179

What is construct validity?

Answer 179

Does it measure what it says it will measure? ## Footnote Construct validity evaluates whether a test truly measures the theoretical construct it claims to measure.

Question 180

What does the variable X represent in the True Score formula?

Answer 180

X is the score that is observed

Question 181

In the True Score formula, what does T represent?

Answer 181

T is the true score

Question 182

In the True Score formula, what does E represent?

Answer 182

E is the error

Question 183

What is the formula for calculating the observed score?

Answer 183

Observed score = true score + error

Question 184

Fill in the blank: Observed score = _______ + error.

Answer 184

[true score]

Question 185

What is a psychological construct?

Answer 185

A concept that represents a psychological phenomenon

Question 186

What is the challenge in defining a psychological construct?

Answer 186

Knowing what to measure and where to start

Question 187

True or False: The definition of psychological constructs is straightforward and does not require further investigation.

Answer 187

False

Question 188

What are the key considerations when defining psychological constructs?

Answer 188

* What to measure * Where to start

Question 189

What is response bias?

Answer 189

When participants are biased away from truthful or accurate answers ## Footnote This can significantly affect the validity of survey results.

Question 190

What is social desirability bias?

Answer 190

Participants frequently like to present themselves favorably ## Footnote This bias can lead to inaccurate responses in surveys.

Question 191

True or False: It is acceptable to ask sexist questions in surveys.

Answer 191

False ## Footnote Such questions can lead to biased responses and are unethical.

Question 192

What is acquiescence in survey responses?

Answer 192

When people are not sure about the question and just agree to it ## Footnote This can compromise the accuracy of survey results.

Question 193

List some downfalls of survey methods.

Answer 193

* Response Bias * Leading Questions * Social Desirability Bias * Acquiescence ## Footnote These issues can affect the reliability and validity of survey findings.

Question 194

What are Likert scales commonly used for?

Answer 194

Psychometric measures

Question 195

What is a typical response format for Likert scales?

Answer 195

Disagree strongly through to agree strongly with 1-5

Question 196

What is a major issue with Likert scales?

Answer 196

They are routinely used as a continuous variable when they are not

Question 197

What is debated regarding the points on a Likert scale?

Answer 197

Odd or even points on a scale

Question 198

Why is there debate over even points on a Likert scale?

Answer 198

A neutral option does not force participants to one side

Question 199

What do most psychometricians accept regarding the number of responses in Likert scales?

Answer 199

Use of odd numbered responses (i.e. 1-5 or 1-7)

Question 200

Fill in the blank: Likert scales are often used to measure _______.

Answer 200

[participant attitudes or opinions]

Question 201

True or False: Likert scales are considered continuous variables by all researchers.

Answer 201

False

Question 202

What is reverse scoring in survey methods?

Answer 202

A technique used to avoid response sets by including negatively worded questions ## Footnote This requires respondents to think more critically about their answers.

Question 203

Why do we use negatively worded questions in surveys?

Answer 203

To prevent respondents from answering without thinking, thereby reducing response sets ## Footnote A response set occurs when respondents answer similarly across multiple questions without considering their individual meanings.

Question 204

What happens to scores when using reverse scoring?

Answer 204

A high score on a positively worded question becomes a low score, and vice versa ## Footnote This transformation ensures that all questions are interpreted in the same direction.

Question 205

What must be done to scores after analysis in reverse scoring?

Answer 205

Scores need to be reversed back to maintain consistency across all questions ## Footnote This step is crucial to interpret the results accurately.

Question 206

Fill in the blank: Reverse scoring is used to avoid _______ from respondents.

Answer 206

response sets

Question 207

True or False: Reverse scoring requires respondents to think less about the questions.

Answer 207

False

Question 208

What are the key qualitative approaches mentioned?

Answer 208

* Discursive * Phenomenological * Ethnographic ## Footnote These approaches are commonly employed in qualitative research to explore various dimensions of human experience and social phenomena.

Question 209

What types of analyses can be included in qualitative research?

Answer 209

* Discourse analysis (discursive) * Content analysis (discursive) * Thematic analysis (discursive) * Interpretative phenomenological analysis (phenomenological) ## Footnote These analyses help researchers interpret and make sense of qualitative data in different contexts.

Question 210

True or False: Only one qualitative approach can be used in research.

Answer 210

False ## Footnote Multiple qualitative approaches can be utilized depending on the research question and context.

Question 211

Fill in the blank: The _______ approach is one of the key qualitative methods that focuses on the lived experiences of individuals.

Answer 211

Phenomenological ## Footnote The phenomenological approach aims to understand how individuals perceive and make sense of their experiences.

Question 212

What does discourse analysis focus on?

Answer 212

The way language is used in communication ## Footnote Discourse analysis examines the structure and function of language in social contexts.

Question 213

What is thematic analysis primarily concerned with?

Answer 213

Identifying and analyzing patterns or themes within qualitative data ## Footnote Thematic analysis is a flexible method that can be applied across various qualitative frameworks.

Question 214

What is the main focus of discursive/discourse analysis?

Answer 214

The construction of social realities through language and visual material ## Footnote This approach emphasizes the social context of discourse and its variations over time and cultures.

Question 215

How do discursive approaches differ from other analytical methods?

Answer 215

They are less interested in subjective experiences and more focused on communication patterns and societal implications ## Footnote This shift highlights the importance of communication as a reflection of societal structures.

Question 216

What aspect of communication does discourse analysis particularly examine?

Answer 216

The regularities that govern how we communicate ## Footnote This includes patterns, norms, and conventions in language use.

Question 217

True or False: Discourse analysis prioritizes individual subjective experiences.

Answer 217

False ## Footnote The approach focuses instead on societal communication and its implications.

Question 218

Fill in the blank: Discourse analysis places importance on the _______ social context in which discourse is employed.

Answer 218

[wider] ## Footnote The social context can vary across different cultures and time periods.

Question 219

What does phenomenological research involve?

Answer 219

The employment of a thick description of the subjective lived experience of the subject ## Footnote Phenomenological research focuses on how individuals perceive and experience the world around them.

Question 220

What is emphasized in phenomenological research regarding the subject's experience?

Answer 220

The embodied perception of the subject ## Footnote This refers to how things look and feel to the individual experiencing them.

Question 221

What does phenomenological research endeavor to avoid?

Answer 221

Making assumptions of the data ## Footnote Instead, it relies on the first-person account of the subject.

Question 222

How is meaning-making viewed in phenomenological research?

Answer 222

It is thought to be directly linked to the lived experience of one's actions and thoughts ## Footnote This perspective highlights the connection between personal experiences and the understanding of meaning.

Question 223

What does the ethnographic approach involve?

Answer 223

Immersion within one's chosen field of study ## Footnote The ethnographic approach is characterized by the researcher's deep involvement in the environment they are studying.

Question 224

What is recorded in detail during the ethnographic approach?

Answer 224

The setting and the actions within the setting that one has become part of ## Footnote Detailed recording helps in understanding the context and interactions in the field.

Question 225

Why is reflection important in the ethnographic approach?

Answer 225

It is integral to making sense of the experience one is having ## Footnote Reflection allows researchers to interpret their observations and feelings about the studied environment.

Question 226

What is fundamental to the ethnographic approach?

Answer 226

Participation to the full ## Footnote Full participation enhances the depth of understanding, although there are ethical and practical limits.

Question 227

True or False: Ethical and practical limits do not exist in the ethnographic approach.

Answer 227

False ## Footnote Ethical and practical considerations must always be taken into account when conducting ethnographic research.

Question 228

What is the primary characteristic of the analysis across different qualitative research approaches?

Answer 228

Generally similar across the approaches, driven by a research question ## Footnote This indicates that despite variations in methodology, the focus remains on addressing a specific research inquiry.

Question 229

What are the initial steps involved in qualitative data analysis?

Answer 229

Involves contextualization and then the assignment of meaningful codes in an iterative process ## Footnote Contextualization helps in understanding the data within its environment.

Question 230

How are codes and themes treated in qualitative data analysis?

Answer 230

Codes and themes are then recontextualized to organize the data into patterns ## Footnote This process aids in identifying overarching themes and patterns within the data.

Question 231

What are the four analytic methods used in qualitative research?

Answer 231

* Critical Discourse Analysis * Thematic Analysis * Interpretive Phenomenological Analysis * Content Analysis ## Footnote Each of these methods has distinct approaches to analyzing qualitative data.

Question 232

What are the two main methods researchers use to collect data?

Answer 232

Directed and non-directed methods ## Footnote Directed methods include elicited approaches, while non-directed methods include non-elicited approaches.

Question 233

What is the goal of the directed method of data collection?

Answer 233

To seek subjective 'lived' experience in the data ## Footnote This approach is often referred to as the phenomenological approach.

Question 234

What is the goal of the non-directed method of data collection?

Answer 234

To make sense of something by looking at the ways in which it is visually represented ## Footnote This approach is known as the discursive approach.

Question 235

Fill in the blank: The _______ approach seeks subjective 'lived' experience in the data.

Answer 235

[phenomenological]

Question 236

Fill in the blank: The _______ approach seeks to make sense of something by examining visual representations.

Answer 236

[discursive]

Question 237

True or False: Elicited methods are part of non-directed data collection.

Answer 237

False ## Footnote Elicited methods are part of directed data collection.

Question 238

What is the first step in research?

Answer 238

Finding out what we know about something (i.e., through searching literature) ## Footnote This involves reviewing existing knowledge and studies related to the topic of interest.

Question 239

What is involved in generating new questions in research?

Answer 239

Generating new questions from previous theory (or exploring new avenues) ## Footnote This can lead to innovative research directions and hypotheses that can be tested.

Question 240

What is the purpose of testing our questions in research?

Answer 240

To validate hypotheses and gather evidence to support or refute them ## Footnote Testing ensures that the research findings are reliable and contribute to the body of knowledge.

Question 241

What does describing, inferring from, and communicating our findings involve?

Answer 241

It involves articulating research results clearly and accurately ## Footnote Effective communication is crucial for the dissemination of research findings to both academic and non-academic audiences.

Question 242

What is the final step in the research process?

Answer 242

Generating new theories about the state-of-the-world ## Footnote This step reflects the ongoing nature of research where new findings can lead to updated theories.

Question 243

Fill in the blank: The research process includes investigating, finding out what we know, generating new questions, testing questions, and _______.

Answer 243

generating new theories about the state-of-the-world

Question 244

True or False: The research process is linear and does not allow for revisiting previous steps.

Answer 244

False ## Footnote The research process is often iterative, allowing researchers to revisit and refine earlier steps based on new insights.

Question 245

What is quantitative research?

Answer 245

Research that involves numbers ## Footnote It is the most common approach to research in psychology.

Question 246

How does quantitative research infer evidence for a theory?

Answer 246

Through measurement of variables that produce numeric outcomes ## Footnote This is based on Field, 2009.

Question 247

What research method is quantitative research linked to?

Answer 247

Falsification and the hypothetico-deductive method

Question 248

Fill in the blank: Quantitative research is linked to _______.

Answer 248

falsification and the hypothetico-deductive method

Question 249

True or False: Quantitative research primarily focuses on qualitative data.

Answer 249

False

Question 250

What is the scientific approach characterized by?

Answer 250

General rules governing behavior ## Footnote The scientific approach emphasizes that behavior follows general rules and is not random.

Question 251

How can behavior be explained according to the scientific approach?

Answer 251

By causal laws ## Footnote This means that behavior can be understood through established cause-and-effect relationships.

Question 252

What type of evidence is the scientific approach based on?

Answer 252

Empirical evidence ## Footnote Empirical evidence is derived from observation or experimentation.

Question 253

What is a crucial aspect regarding the replication of scientific studies?

Answer 253

Replication should be possible ## Footnote Replication allows for the verification of results across different studies.

Question 254

What is meant by evidence being independent of the observer?

Answer 254

Evidence should not be influenced by who is observing it ## Footnote This ensures objectivity in scientific research.

Question 255

What is necessary for objective and accurate measurement in the scientific approach?

Answer 255

Standardized methods and tools ## Footnote Accurate measurement is essential for reliable data collection.

Question 256

What does it mean for theories to be testable?

Answer 256

Theories should be able to be confirmed or refuted through experimentation ## Footnote Testability is a fundamental criterion for scientific theories.

Question 257

What is operationalization in the context of scientific theories?

Answer 257

The process of defining theoretical constructs in measurable terms ## Footnote This allows abstract concepts to be tested and observed.

Question 258

What is a common characteristic of quantitative research?

Answer 258

It tests a hypothesis/prediction ## Footnote This feature distinguishes quantitative research from qualitative methods.

Question 259

In what type of environment is quantitative research often conducted?

Answer 259

Controlled environment (e.g. a psychology lab) ## Footnote Controlled settings help minimize external variables affecting the results.

Question 260

What methods are commonly employed in quantitative research?

Answer 260

Experimental methods, structured questionnaires, observations ## Footnote These methods help gather numerical data for analysis.

Question 261

True or False: All quantitative research must be conducted in a controlled environment.

Answer 261

False ## Footnote While controlled environments are common, they are not prerequisites for quantitative research.

Question 262

Fill in the blank: Quantitative research often employs _______ methods.

Answer 262

[experimental] ## Footnote Experimental methods are key in testing hypotheses.

Question 263

What is one of the primary goals of quantitative research?

Answer 263

To test a hypothesis ## Footnote This goal is central to the scientific method and quantitative approaches.

Question 264

List two characteristics that are commonly found in quantitative research.

Answer 264

* Tests a hypothesis/prediction * Conducted in a controlled environment ## Footnote These characteristics help define the scope and methodology of quantitative studies.

Question 265

What are the two main focuses when designing quantitative studies?

Answer 265

Difference between measurements in different conditions or tasks, and relationships ## Footnote This refers to evaluating how variables interact or differ under various circumstances.

Question 266

What are the three main types of design used in quantitative studies?

Answer 266

* Correlational * Experimental * Quasi-experimental ## Footnote Each design type serves a different purpose in research methodology.

Question 267

What does correlational design focus on?

Answer 267

Looking for associations between variables ## Footnote An example is observing that ice cream sales increase as temperatures rise.

Question 268

What is the primary goal of experimental design?

Answer 268

To look for differences between measurements for different tasks or conditions ## Footnote For instance, comparing depression scores across various treatment methods.

Question 269

What distinguishes quasi-experimental design from experimental design?

Answer 269

It involves existing groups that prevent random allocation of participants ## Footnote An example includes comparing older vs. younger participants based on age as a variable.

Question 270

What is the purpose of measurement in quantitative research?

Answer 270

To measure things of interest which determine the types of statistical tests that can be performed to address hypotheses.

Question 271

What is nominal measurement?

Answer 271

A type of measurement that categorizes data without a specific order.

Question 272

What is ordinal measurement?

Answer 272

A type of measurement that categorizes data with a meaningful order but no consistent difference between categories.

Question 273

What is interval measurement?

Answer 273

A type of measurement that categorizes data with meaningful differences between values, but no true zero point.

Question 274

What is ratio measurement?

Answer 274

A type of measurement that categorizes data with meaningful differences and a true zero point.

Question 275

Fill in the blank: The four common types of measurement in quantitative research are _______.

Answer 275

Nominal, Ordinal, Interval, Ratio

Question 276

True or False: The type of measurement used in research does not affect the statistical tests that can be performed.

Answer 276

False

Question 277

What is nominal data?

Answer 277

Classification of observations into different groups ## Footnote Examples include types of body gestures or types of car owned.

Question 278

Can nominal data be averaged?

Answer 278

No, it can only be counted in terms of frequency ## Footnote Nominal data does not support mathematical operations like averaging.

Question 279

Provide an example of nominal data related to car ownership.

Answer 279

Types of car owned by students: * Ford = 32 * Vauxhall = 68 * Nissan = 22 * BMW = 9 ## Footnote This example illustrates how nominal data can represent different categories and their frequencies.

Question 280

What is ordinal in the context of arranging values?

Answer 280

The ordering of a set of values in terms of position, without reference to absolute difference in the values. ## Footnote Examples include league tables which rank items as first, second, third, etc.

Question 281

What does being second in an ordinal ranking imply?

Answer 281

Being second might be very close to being first, or it might be very far from third. ## Footnote This highlights that ordinal rankings do not convey information about the exact differences between ranks.

Question 282

True or False: Ordinal rankings retain information about the exact values used to position items.

Answer 282

False ## Footnote Ordinal rankings only provide positional information and do not reflect the absolute differences between the values.

Question 283

What is an interval scale?

Answer 283

A scale where numerical values have meaning, allowing for accurate judgment of differences between measurements. ## Footnote This scale indicates that the differences between values are meaningful, but it lacks an absolute zero point.

Question 284

True or False: An interval scale has an absolute meaningful zero point.

Answer 284

False ## Footnote An interval scale, such as temperature in Celsius, does not possess a true zero that signifies the absence of the measured quantity.

Question 285

What mathematical operations can typically be performed on interval scales?

Answer 285

Useful mathematics can be done, such as determining if one value is twice as large as another. ## Footnote This is due to the precise meaning of differences between numbers on the scale.

Question 286

Fill in the blank: An interval scale allows us to judge the difference between measurements accurately, but it does not have a _______.

Answer 286

meaningful 0 point ## Footnote This distinction is crucial for understanding the limitations of interval scales.

Question 287

What is a defining characteristic of a ratio scale?

Answer 287

It allows for the meaningful comparison of absolute values, including multiplication and division ## Footnote Ratio scales have a true zero point, which enables statements about the ratio of measurements (e.g., Tom was 2.1 times as quick as Amir).

Question 288

How does the presence of zero in a scale affect measurement?

Answer 288

It allows for meaningful statements about the difference between observations ## Footnote For example, we can state that there was zero difference between observations in terms of time.

Question 289

What types of measurement are often conflated in practice?

Answer 289

Interval and ratio types of measurement ## Footnote This conflation leads to what is referred to as a continuous scale.

Question 290

Fill in the blank: In a ratio scale, we can meaningfully state that there was _______ difference between observations.

Answer 290

zero

Question 291

True or False: In a ratio scale, we can only look at the distance between observed values.

Answer 291

False ## Footnote We can also multiply and divide observations to create ratios.

Question 292

What is one example of how ratio scales can be applied in practice?

Answer 292

Comparing speeds, such as stating one person is 2.1 times as quick as another ## Footnote This illustrates how ratio scales enable meaningful comparisons beyond just differences.

Question 293

What are the two types of measurements discussed?

Answer 293

Continuous and discrete

Question 294

In continuous measurements, which types can be included?

Answer 294

Interval and ratio

Question 295

For discrete measurements, which types can be included?

Answer 295

Interval, ratio, ordinal, and nominal

Question 296

Fill in the blank: In continuous terms, only _______ and _______ can be included.

Answer 296

interval, ratio

Question 297

Fill in the blank: For discrete measurements, all four types can be included: interval, ratio, _______ and _______.

Answer 297

ordinal, nominal

Question 298

True or False: Continuous measurements can include nominal data.

Answer 298

False

Question 299

True or False: Discrete measurements can include all four types of measurement scales.

Answer 299

True

Question 300

What is the first step in scientific research?

Answer 300

Identification of a research question ## Footnote This step is crucial for guiding the direction of the study.

Question 301

What is generated after identifying a research question?

Answer 301

A hypothesis ## Footnote Hypotheses are typically predictions about the relationship between variables.

Question 302

What do hypotheses commonly predict?

Answer 302

The effect of one variable on another ## Footnote This prediction is a foundational aspect of experimental research.

Question 303

What are the two main types of variables in research design?

Answer 303

Independent Variable and Dependent Variable ## Footnote These variables play distinct roles in an experiment.

Question 304

What is an Independent Variable?

Answer 304

Manipulated Variable ## Footnote This variable is changed to observe its effect on the dependent variable.

Question 305

What is a Dependent Variable?

Answer 305

Observed Variable ## Footnote This variable is measured to see how it is affected by the independent variable.

Question 306

What is the Independent Variable (IV) in an experiment?

Answer 306

The variable that is hypothesised to have an effect on the phenomena ## Footnote Also referred to as the 'causal variable'

Question 307

How is the Independent Variable (IV) manipulated in an experiment?

Answer 307

It is varied by the researcher who measures the impact on the dependent variable

Question 308

Why is the Independent Variable considered 'independent'?

Answer 308

The levels are controlled by the researcher and do not fluctuate due to the presence of other factors

Question 309

Fill in the blank: The Independent Variable is sometimes referred to as the _______.

Answer 309

'causal variable'

Question 310

What is the Dependent Variable (DV)?

Answer 310

It is called the Dependent Variable as it is dependent on the Independent Variable. ## Footnote The DV is what the experimenter measures during the experiment.

Question 311

What does the Dependent Variable represent in an experiment?

Answer 311

It represents the measurements recorded during the experiment. ## Footnote These measurements are known as data.

Question 312

The Dependent Variable is dependent on which variable?

Answer 312

Independent Variable ## Footnote Changes in the DV are a result of changes in the IV.

Question 313

Fill in the blank: The measurements obtained from the Dependent Variable are known as _______.

Answer 313

data ## Footnote Data is crucial for analyzing the results of an experiment.

Question 314

What are extraneous variables in experimental design?

Answer 314

Variables that have not been manipulated by the researcher but could impact the dependent variable (DV) ## Footnote These variables can confound the results of an experiment if not controlled.

Question 315

What is the primary goal when designing experiments regarding extraneous variables?

Answer 315

To limit the effects of extraneous variables ## Footnote This helps ensure that the observed effects are due to the independent variable (IV) alone.

Question 316

In experimental design, what is the independent variable (IV)?

Answer 316

The variable that is manipulated by the researcher to observe its effect on the dependent variable (DV) ## Footnote The IV is central to testing hypotheses in experiments.

Question 317

In experimental design, what is the dependent variable (DV)?

Answer 317

The outcome variable that is measured in an experiment to assess the effect of the independent variable (IV) ## Footnote Changes in the DV are expected as a result of manipulating the IV.

Question 318

What is a Confounding Variable?

Answer 318

An extraneous variable that has a consistent effect on the dependent variable (DV) ## Footnote Confounding variables can impact the quality of experimental results.

Question 319

Why is it important to limit the influence of extraneous variables in experiments?

Answer 319

To enhance the quality of the results and ensure that the observed effects are due to the independent variable rather than other factors ## Footnote Extraneous variables can obscure the true relationship between the independent and dependent variables.

Question 320

Fill in the blank: If an extraneous variable has a consistent effect on the DV, it is known as a _______.

Answer 320

Confounding Variable

Question 321

How can confounding variables impact research findings?

Answer 321

They can lead to incorrect conclusions about the relationship between variables ## Footnote For example, not controlling for IQ when studying sex differences in digit span length may misattribute differences to sex rather than IQ.

Question 322

True or False: A confounding variable is always an extraneous variable.

Answer 322

True

Question 323

What could happen if we do not control for confounding variables in an experiment?

Answer 323

Results may be misleading or invalid ## Footnote For instance, failing to control for IQ when examining sex differences could result in attributing differences to sex instead of intelligence.

Question 324

What is a fundamental feature of research design?

Answer 324

Whether we ask participants to take part in more than one condition

Question 325

What are the two main designs in research?

Answer 325

* Between Participants * Within Participants

Question 326

What is a Between Participants design?

Answer 326

Where participants contribute to only one condition and we compare between different groups of people

Question 327

What is a Within Participants design?

Answer 327

Where participants contribute to more than one condition and we explore whether there is a change within that participant

Question 328

True or False: In a Within Participants design, each participant is only exposed to one condition.

Answer 328

False

Question 329

Fill in the blank: In a Between Participants design, researchers compare _______.

Answer 329

[different groups of people]

Question 330

Fill in the blank: In a Within Participants design, researchers explore whether there is a change _______.

Answer 330

[within that participant]

Question 331

What is a Between Participant Design?

Answer 331

A research design where different participants are assigned to different conditions or groups.

Question 332

What is one advantage of Between Participant Design?

Answer 332

Less chance of order effects.

Question 333

What is a disadvantage of Between Participant Design?

Answer 333

Need a larger sample size.

Question 334

In a Between Participant Design, what problem can arise with group allocation?

Answer 334

One group may have a higher IQ than the other.

Question 335

What is a benefit of using Between Participant Design in terms of participant performance?

Answer 335

Participants are more likely to perform at optimum levels.

Question 336

True or False: Between Participant Design is less likely to observe fatigue effects.

Answer 336

True.

Question 337

What is a common challenge associated with Between Participant Design?

Answer 337

Expensive and time-consuming.

Question 338

Fill in the blank: Between Participant Design is necessary for making some _______.

Answer 338

[comparisons].

Question 339

What is the implication of higher inter-participant variation in Between Participant Design?

Answer 339

It can lead to less reliable results.

Question 340

What is a Between Participant Design?

Answer 340

A research design where different participants are assigned to different conditions or groups.

Question 341

What is one advantage of Between Participant Design?

Answer 341

Less chance of order effects.

Question 342

What is a disadvantage of Between Participant Design?

Answer 342

Need a larger sample size.

Question 343

In a Between Participant Design, what problem can arise with group allocation?

Answer 343

One group may have a higher IQ than the other.

Question 344

What is a benefit of using Between Participant Design in terms of participant performance?

Answer 344

Participants are more likely to perform at optimum levels.

Question 345

True or False: Between Participant Design is less likely to observe fatigue effects.

Answer 345

True.

Question 346

What is a common challenge associated with Between Participant Design?

Answer 346

Expensive and time-consuming.

Question 347

Fill in the blank: Between Participant Design is necessary for making some _______.

Answer 347

[comparisons].

Question 348

What is the implication of higher inter-participant variation in Between Participant Design?

Answer 348

It can lead to less reliable results.

Question 349

What is a key advantage of within-participant design?

Answer 349

Controls for inter-individual differences ## Footnote This design allows each participant to serve as their own control, which helps to reduce variability attributed to individual differences.

Question 350

What is a disadvantage of within-participant design?

Answer 350

Prone to order effects ## Footnote Participants may improve over time simply due to repetition of tasks, which can confound results.

Question 351

What is another disadvantage of within-participant design?

Answer 351

Fatigue effects ## Footnote Participants may become tired or bored if they are engaged in experiments for prolonged periods.

Question 352

Fill in the blank: Within-participant design limits the effects of _______.

Answer 352

extraneous and confounding variables

Question 353

True or False: A smaller sample size is an advantage of within-participant design.

Answer 353

True ## Footnote Smaller sample sizes can be effective because each participant provides multiple data points.

Question 354

What is the primary goal of an experiment?

Answer 354

To test a prediction (hypothesis) by making measurements and establishing whether differences occur between experimental conditions.

Question 355

What is the independent variable (IV) in an experiment?

Answer 355

The factor that we manipulate to observe its effect.

Question 356

What is the dependent variable (DV) in an experiment?

Answer 356

The factor that we measure to see how it is affected by the independent variable.

Question 357

What are the types of experimental designs?

Answer 357

Within, between, or mixed designs.

Question 358

What is crucial to determine about the sample in an experiment?

Answer 358

Who our sample will be.

Question 359

What types of tests need to be conducted on the data collected in an experiment?

Answer 359

Descriptive and inferential tests.

Question 360

Fill in the blank: An experiment seeks to test a _______ by making measurements.

Answer 360

[prediction (hypothesis)]

Question 361

True or False: The dependent variable is what we manipulate in an experiment.

Answer 361

False

Question 362

What must be considered when establishing experimental conditions?

Answer 362

What we wish to compare, what we wish to measure, the design type, and the sample.

Question 363

What does descriptive testing involve?

Answer 363

Analyzing how the data are distributed.

Question 364

What does inferential testing help us understand?

Answer 364

What the data can tell us with reference to our hypothesis.

Question 365

What is the experimental hypothesis in classic experiments?

Answer 365

It predicts that there will be a difference between groups ## Footnote The experimental hypothesis is often the primary hypothesis being tested in an experiment.

Question 366

What does the null hypothesis state?

Answer 366

There will be little difference (or relationship) between groups (apart from sampling error) ## Footnote The null hypothesis is a default position that indicates no effect or no difference.

Question 367

What is a key requirement when interpreting experimental results?

Answer 367

Results must not be due to sampling error ## Footnote Ensuring this helps to validate the findings of the experiment.

Question 368

What is a sample in the context of experiments?

Answer 368

A small portion of a larger population that is tested in an experiment ## Footnote For example, testing five schizophrenics out of all who have schizophrenia.

Question 369

Why is it important to assess whether a sample represents the general population?

Answer 369

To ensure that the findings from the sample can be generalized to the larger population ## Footnote This is crucial for the validity of the experiment's conclusions.

Question 370

What is sampling error?

Answer 370

Sampling error is where our sample does not reflect the same distribution of data as that observed for the whole population. ## Footnote This can lead to inaccurate conclusions about the population based on the sample data.

Question 371

What do inferential statistics assess?

Answer 371

Inferential statistics assess the likelihood (i.e. probability) of us having made a sampling error. ## Footnote This involves determining the chances that a difference found in the sample is due to sampling error.

Question 372

What is the primary question addressed by inferential statistics regarding sampling error?

Answer 372

What are the chances that the difference we have found is due to sampling error if there is, in actual fact, no such difference in the general population? ## Footnote This question is crucial for understanding the validity of the findings.

Question 373

What is a Type I error?

Answer 373

Finding a significant effect where one does not exist ## Footnote Type I error is also known as a false positive.

Question 374

What is a Type II error?

Answer 374

Failing to find an effect where one does exist ## Footnote Type II error is also known as a false negative.

Question 375

What can cause sampling errors?

Answer 375

Sampling errors can be caused by: * Number of people studied * How the sample is selected * Chance ## Footnote These factors can lead to incorrect conclusions in research.

Question 376

Fill in the blank: A Type I error is also known as a _______.

Answer 376

[false positive]

Question 377

Fill in the blank: A Type II error is also known as a _______.

Answer 377

[false negative]

Question 378

True or False: A Type I error occurs when we fail to find a significant effect.

Answer 378

False ## Footnote A Type I error occurs when we incorrectly find a significant effect that does not exist.

Question 379

True or False: The number of people studied can influence the likelihood of sampling errors.

Answer 379

True ## Footnote A larger or improperly selected sample can lead to sampling errors.

Question 380

What does it mean when something is statistically significant?

Answer 380

The probability of an observation occurring is remote enough (usually p ≤ .05) ## Footnote This indicates that the result is unlikely to have occurred by chance.

Question 381

Does statistical significance prove anything?

Answer 381

No, it simply supports our experimental hypothesis ## Footnote Statistical significance is about probability, not proof.

Question 382

What does statistical significance not necessarily address?

Answer 382

Psychological significance or the size of a difference or relationship ## Footnote This is better addressed by looking at effect size.

Question 383

Fill in the blank: Statistical significance is usually indicated by a p-value of _______.

Answer 383

p ≤ .05

Question 384

True or False: Statistical significance and effect size are the same concepts.

Answer 384

False ## Footnote Statistical significance indicates probability, while effect size measures the magnitude of a difference.

Question 385

What is the main difference between statistical significance and psychological significance?

Answer 385

Statistical significance refers to the mathematical validity of a result, while psychological significance considers the practical implications of that result. ## Footnote This distinction can be illustrated through legal debates regarding medication efficacy.

Question 386

In the debate about a new medication, what is the patient's position?

Answer 386

The patient wants access to a new medication citing that it is significantly better than the existing one for curing their disease. ## Footnote This position relies on scientific publications demonstrating the medication's effectiveness.

Question 387

What is the medical provider's argument regarding the new medication?

Answer 387

The medical provider argues that the new medication has a small effect size, which does not warrant replacing the existing medication. ## Footnote This highlights the importance of effect size in evaluating treatment options.

Question 388

Fill in the blank: Statistical significance refers to _______.

Answer 388

[the mathematical validity of a result]

Question 389

True or False: Psychological significance only considers the statistical validity of results.

Answer 389

False

Question 390

Fill in the blank: Psychological significance considers the _______ implications of a result.

Answer 390

[practical]

Question 391

What is the main difference between statistical significance and psychological significance?

Answer 391

Statistical significance refers to the mathematical validity of a result, while psychological significance considers the practical implications of that result. ## Footnote This distinction can be illustrated through legal debates regarding medication efficacy.

Question 392

In the debate about a new medication, what is the patient's position?

Answer 392

The patient wants access to a new medication citing that it is significantly better than the existing one for curing their disease. ## Footnote This position relies on scientific publications demonstrating the medication's effectiveness.

Question 393

What is the medical provider's argument regarding the new medication?

Answer 393

The medical provider argues that the new medication has a small effect size, which does not warrant replacing the existing medication. ## Footnote This highlights the importance of effect size in evaluating treatment options.

Question 394

Fill in the blank: Statistical significance refers to _______.

Answer 394

[the mathematical validity of a result]

Question 395

True or False: Psychological significance only considers the statistical validity of results.

Answer 395

False

Question 396

Fill in the blank: Psychological significance considers the _______ implications of a result.

Answer 396

[practical]

Question 397

What shape does the distribution of a population's measurements typically form?

Answer 397

Bell shaped distribution (normal distribution) ## Footnote This is also referred to as a normal curve.

Question 398

Where do common values tend to be found in a normal distribution?

Answer 398

In the center ## Footnote This includes the mean of the distribution.

Question 399

What can we infer about extreme values in a normal distribution?

Answer 399

They are found in the tails ## Footnote Extreme or rare values represent low probabilities of occurrence.

Question 400

What is necessary to infer about a population from a sample?

Answer 400

The sample must be normally distributed ## Footnote If the sample is not normal, we cannot infer characteristics about the population.

Question 401

True or False: A 7ft adult is considered a common value in the population.

Answer 401

False ## Footnote A 7ft adult is rare and has a low probability of occurring.

Question 402

Fill in the blank: Populations tend to be ______ distributed.

Answer 402

normally ## Footnote This characteristic allows for statistical inferences to be made.

Question 403

What shape does the distribution of a population's measurements typically form?

Answer 403

Bell shaped distribution (normal distribution) ## Footnote This is also referred to as a normal curve.

Question 404

Where do common values tend to be found in a normal distribution?

Answer 404

In the center ## Footnote This includes the mean of the distribution.

Question 405

What can we infer about extreme values in a normal distribution?

Answer 405

They are found in the tails ## Footnote Extreme or rare values represent low probabilities of occurrence.

Question 406

What is necessary to infer about a population from a sample?

Answer 406

The sample must be normally distributed ## Footnote If the sample is not normal, we cannot infer characteristics about the population.

Question 407

True or False: A 7ft adult is considered a common value in the population.

Answer 407

False ## Footnote A 7ft adult is rare and has a low probability of occurring.

Question 408

Fill in the blank: Populations tend to be ______ distributed.

Answer 408

normally ## Footnote This characteristic allows for statistical inferences to be made.

Question 409

What is a normal distribution?

Answer 409

A frequency distribution that is symmetrical with the mean, median, and mode at the center.

Question 410

What is the characteristic shape of a normal distribution?

Answer 410

A bell-shaped curve.

Question 411

In a normal distribution, where are the mean, median, and mode located?

Answer 411

At the center.

Question 412

True or False: Most measurements in the natural world conform exactly to a normal distribution.

Answer 412

False.

Question 413

What does it mean when a distribution is described as skewed?

Answer 413

It is not perfectly symmetrical and leans to one side.

Question 414

Fill in the blank: Almost anything in the natural world will conform to a distribution with a _______.

Answer 414

normal curve.

Question 415

What approach to probability does NHST use?

Answer 415

Frequentist approach ## Footnote NHST stands for Null Hypothesis Significance Testing

Question 416

How does the frequentist approach represent the probability of an event?

Answer 416

It uses long-run frequency ## Footnote This means analyzing outcomes over a large number of trials

Question 417

What limitation does the frequentist approach have regarding single events?

Answer 417

It cannot establish probabilities for single events ## Footnote For example, it cannot predict a specific turnout for a single class

Question 418

What is an example of a probability that can be described using the frequentist approach?

Answer 418

Probability of turnout over an infinite number of classes ## Footnote For instance, a 90% turnout rate calculated over many classes

Question 419

What is a key issue with using the frequentist approach in relation to human behavior?

Answer 419

It may not accurately reflect single event probabilities ## Footnote Human behavior can be unpredictable and variable

Question 420

What will be the focus of the probability approach used this year?

Answer 420

The frequentist approach ## Footnote Despite its limitations, it will be the primary method for analysis

Question 421

What distribution is commonly used in statistics to assess probability?

Answer 421

Standard normal distribution ## Footnote The standard normal distribution is a specific type of normal distribution with a mean of 0 and a standard deviation of 1.

Question 422

What is the purpose of converting the strength of relationship or the amount of difference between groups?

Answer 422

To obtain a standardized value ## Footnote This standardized value allows for comparison across different datasets and helps assess statistical significance.

Question 423

How can we assess the likelihood of obtaining a value under the null hypothesis?

Answer 423

By using the standardized value ## Footnote This involves calculating probabilities based on the standard normal distribution.

Question 424

Fill in the blank: In statistics, we use the _______ distribution to assess the probability of finding a particular result.

Answer 424

standard normal ## Footnote The standard normal distribution is central to many statistical analyses.

Question 425

True or False: The null hypothesis is assumed to be true when assessing the likelihood of obtaining a statistical value.

Answer 425

True ## Footnote The null hypothesis typically states that there is no effect or no difference, serving as a baseline for comparison.

Question 426

What is the mean of any normally distributed set of numbers?

Answer 426

The mean will always be in the centre

Question 427

What is true about extreme scores in a normal distribution?

Answer 427

Extreme scores are much less likely than scores near the mean

Question 428

What standardized measures help assess probabilities in a normal distribution?

Answer 428

Standard deviations and z-scores

Question 429

What can we assess using the area under the curve in a normal distribution?

Answer 429

The probability of finding a specific value

Question 430

True or False: In a normal distribution, scores near the mean are more common than extreme scores.

Answer 430

True

Question 431

Fill in the blank: The _______ of any normally distributed set of numbers will always be in the centre.

Answer 431

mean

Question 432

Fill in the blank: We can assess the probability of finding a value in a normal distribution using _______ measures.

Answer 432

standardized

Question 433

What is a directional prediction in hypothesis development?

Answer 433

A prediction that specifies the expected outcome in a particular direction, such as one group outperforming another. ## Footnote Example: Group A will outperform Group B.

Question 434

What is a one-tailed prediction?

Answer 434

A prediction that is directional, indicating the expected outcome will occur in a specific direction.

Question 435

What is a two-tailed prediction?

Answer 435

A prediction that can result in outcomes in either direction, indicating a non-directional hypothesis.

Question 436

In hypothesis testing, what does a one-tailed prediction imply?

Answer 436

It implies that there is an expectation of a specific direction of difference between groups.

Question 437

In hypothesis testing, what does a two-tailed prediction imply?

Answer 437

It implies that there is an expectation of a difference but does not specify the direction.

Question 438

What is the impact of making a one-tailed prediction on assessing experimental significance?

Answer 438

It affects how we look at and assess the probability of an experimental effect being significant.

Question 439

In a one-tailed prediction, where do we look to determine significance?

Answer 439

Under the normal curve, specifically in the last 5% of the tail (the rejected region).

Question 440

How does a two-tailed prediction differ from a one-tailed prediction?

Answer 440

In a two-tailed prediction, we don't know which tail the value may fall under, so we assess significance in the last 2.5% of either tail.

Question 441

Fill in the blank: For a one-tailed prediction, we assess if our value falls within the last _______ of the tail.

Answer 441

5%

Question 442

Fill in the blank: For a two-tailed prediction, we assess if our value falls in the last _______ of either tail.

Answer 442

2.5%

Question 443

True or False: A one-tailed prediction allows for the assessment of significance in both tails of the distribution.

Answer 443

False

Question 444

What is the 'rejected region' in the context of one-tailed predictions?

Answer 444

The last 5% of the tail under the normal curve.

Question 445

What is the effect of making a one-tailed prediction on assessing experimental effects?

Answer 445

It affects how we look at and assess the probability of an experimental effect being significant

Question 446

In a one-tailed prediction, where do we look to determine significance?

Answer 446

Under the normal curve in the last 5% of the tail (the rejected region)

Question 447

In a two-tailed prediction, how do we assess where our value may fall?

Answer 447

We are only confident if our value falls in the last 2.5% of either tail

Question 448

True or False: A one-tailed prediction allows for greater flexibility in determining significance.

Answer 448

False

Question 449

Fill in the blank: For a one-tailed prediction, the significant region is in the last ______ of the tail.

Answer 449

5%

Question 450

Fill in the blank: In a two-tailed prediction, we check the last ______ of either tail for significance.

Answer 450

2.5%

Question 451

What are non-parametric tests?

Answer 451

Tests that do not assume a normal distribution of data ## Footnote Examples include chi-square tests.

Question 452

What are parametric tests?

Answer 452

Tests that assume a normal distribution of data ## Footnote Examples include t-tests.

Question 453

What is the implication if data do not form a normal distribution?

Answer 453

We cannot infer from our sample to the population ## Footnote This limits the applicability of statistical conclusions.

Question 454

What is the implication if data form a normal distribution?

Answer 454

We can infer from our sample to the population ## Footnote This allows for broader conclusions based on sample data.

Question 455

Fill in the blank: If our data do not or cannot form a normal distribution, they are referred to as _______.

Answer 455

non-parametric tests

Question 456

Fill in the blank: If our data do form a normal distribution, they are referred to as _______.

Answer 456

parametric tests

Question 457

True or False: Non-parametric tests can be used for categorical data.

Answer 457

True

Question 458

True or False: Parametric tests are also known as distribution-free tests.

Answer 458

False

Question 459

What does a probability value indicate in terms of effect size?

Answer 459

It does not tell us how large our observed effect is. ## Footnote Probability values indicate statistical significance but not the magnitude of the effect.

Question 460

True or False: A small probability value always indicates a large effect size.

Answer 460

False. ## Footnote A small p-value can occur with a small effect size, especially in large samples.

Question 461

Why is understanding effect size important?

Answer 461

It gives us a better interpretation of our results. ## Footnote Effect size helps to understand the practical significance of findings.

Question 462

Fill in the blank: Understanding what size of effect we have gives us a better _______ of our results.

Answer 462

interpretation. ## Footnote Interpretation involves assessing the implications of the statistical findings.

Question 463

What can lead to a small p-value even with a small effect size?

Answer 463

A small sample size. ## Footnote A small sample can produce misleading p-values in the context of effect size.

Question 464

What might a small p-value indicate in relation to a strong relationship?

Answer 464

It could indicate a very large difference. ## Footnote The relationship between sample size, p-values, and effect size can be complex.

Question 465

What are the considerations when designing research studies?

Answer 465

The researcher needs to be mindful of: * Difficulty of the task * Ordering of tasks * Naivety of the participant * Intention of the participant * Type of data to be collected ## Footnote These aspects are essential for ensuring valid and reliable research outcomes.

Question 466

What are demand characteristics?

Answer 466

Features of a study that influence participants' behavior based on their perceptions of the study's purpose. ## Footnote Demand characteristics can lead to biased results if participants alter their behavior to fit perceived expectations.

Question 467

Define order effects in research design.

Answer 467

Order effects refer to how the sequence of tasks can affect participants' responses. ## Footnote For example, performing a difficult task first may affect performance on subsequent tasks.

Question 468

What are difficulty effects in research studies?

Answer 468

Difficulty effects include floor and ceiling effects that impact the range of data collected. ## Footnote A floor effect occurs when a task is too difficult, leading to low scores, while a ceiling effect happens when a task is too easy, resulting in high scores.

Question 469

Fill in the blank: The type of data one will collect is a key consideration when _______.

Answer 469

[designing a study]

Question 470

What is a floor effect?

Answer 470

A situation where everyone performs very poorly, or near the minimum value ## Footnote Floor effects can obscure the true variability in data.

Question 471

What is a ceiling effect?

Answer 471

A situation where everyone performs very well, or near the maximum value ## Footnote Ceiling effects can also obscure the true variability in data.

Question 472

What is necessary when creating a task to test a prediction or hypothesis?

Answer 472

There needs to be variability in the data ## Footnote Variability is essential to distinguish how participants perform under different tasks or conditions.

Question 473

What problems arise when one cannot distinguish performance based on participants or conditions?

Answer 473

It can lead to difficulties in interpreting the data ## Footnote This lack of distinction can undermine the validity of the study.

Question 474

Fill in the blank: A _______ effect occurs when everyone does very poorly.

Answer 474

floor

Question 475

Fill in the blank: A _______ effect occurs when everyone does very well.

Answer 475

ceiling

Question 476

True or False: Floor and ceiling effects can both obscure true variability in data.

Answer 476

True

Question 477

What are demand effects in research studies?

Answer 477

Demand effects refer to how a participant's performance can be influenced by various factors, affecting the researcher's data interpretation.

Question 478

What is the Hawthorne Effect?

Answer 478

The Hawthorne Effect is when participants alter their behavior because they are aware they are being observed.

Question 479

What can participants do if they guess the researcher's goal?

Answer 479

Participants can behave in accordance with the guessed goal, deviating from their normal behavior.

Question 480

What is the Clever Hans Effect?

Answer 480

The Clever Hans Effect occurs when experimenters unintentionally influence participants to produce desired outcomes.

Question 481

Fill in the blank: Participants typically want to do well and may behave according to their guesses about the researcher's _______.

Answer 481

[goal]

Question 482

True or False: Demand effects are only caused by the participant's knowledge of being observed.

Answer 482

False

Question 483

What can experimenters introduce to influence participant behavior?

Answer 483

Bias

Question 484

How can the performance of a participant in a study be problematic?

Answer 484

It can depend on a range of issues that influence their performance, complicating data interpretation.

Question 485

List two effects that can influence participant behavior in research.

Answer 485

* Hawthorne Effect * Clever Hans Effect

Question 486

What is social desirability in research?

Answer 486

The tendency of participants to respond in a manner that aligns with social norms rather than their true feelings. ## Footnote This often affects answers to questions about socially undesirable behaviors, such as not recycling.

Question 487

Why is it important to consider social desirability when designing a questionnaire?

Answer 487

Participant responses may not reflect their true feelings due to the influence of social norms. ## Footnote This can lead to biased data that does not accurately represent the participants' actual behaviors or opinions.

Question 488

Fill in the blank: Responses to questions about socially undesirable behaviors may be influenced by _______.

Answer 488

[social norms]

Question 489

True or False: Social desirability bias can lead to more honest responses in questionnaires.

Answer 489

False ## Footnote Social desirability bias typically results in less honest responses as participants may want to conform to perceived societal expectations.

Question 490

What is acquiescence bias?

Answer 490

Also known as 'agreement bias', it is a situation where a participant answers questions with agreement or disagreement that does not reflect their true feelings or opinions. ## Footnote Acquiescence bias can significantly impact the validity of research findings.

Question 491

What factors can cause acquiescence bias?

Answer 491

Factors include: * Participant motivation * The set of options available * Uniform phrasing of questions ## Footnote Understanding these factors helps in designing better questionnaires.

Question 492

What do established questionnaires consider to obtain true responses?

Answer 492

They consider: * How questions are phrased * Providing information regarding confidentiality * Types of response options available ## Footnote These considerations are crucial for minimizing biases in survey responses.

Question 493

What is a longitudinal design?

Answer 493

A design where we study a behaviour or subject of interest over a longer period of time, making measurements at regular intervals. ## Footnote This allows researchers to see how things change over time within the same group of participants.

Question 494

What is the main advantage of a longitudinal design?

Answer 494

It allows observation of changes over time within the same group of participants. ## Footnote This is particularly useful for studying interventions aimed at changing behaviours.

Question 495

What is a cross-sectional design?

Answer 495

A design that saves time by studying different groups at a single point in time. ## Footnote This introduces between-group variation due to individual differences.

Question 496

True or False: Longitudinal designs can show how behaviours change over time.

Answer 496

True

Question 497

Fill in the blank: A longitudinal design usually involves making measurements at _______.

Answer 497

regular intervals

Question 498

What is a key drawback of cross-sectional designs?

Answer 498

It introduces between-group variation due to individual differences. ## Footnote This can affect the reliability of the results as the groups may differ significantly.

Question 499

What type of design is used to study the same group of participants over time?

Answer 499

Longitudinal design

Question 500

What does a longitudinal design allow researchers to do?

Answer 500

See how things change over time within the same group of participants. ## Footnote This can reveal trends and patterns that cross-sectional studies may miss.