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Question 1

structured plan or strategy for conducting a
study, outlining how data will be collected, analyzed, and
interpreted to address specific research questions or hypotheses

Answer 1

Research design

Question 2

method used to investigate
causal relationships between variables by manipulating one or
more independent variables and observing the effect on one or
more dependent variables

Answer 2

Experimental research design

Question 3

Experimental research design aims to

Answer 3

establish cause-and-effect relationships by controlling
for extraneous variables and minimizing bias

Question 4

systematically managing or holding constant variables other than the independent variable to ensure that
observed effects are attributed specifically to the independent
variable rather than to these other factors

Answer 4

controlling

Question 5

controlling for confounding variables helps to

Answer 5

isolate the real relationship between the independent variable (X) and the dependent variable (Y)

Question 6

Experimental vs. observational research design

Answer 6

Experimental research designs involve actively manipulating
independent variables and using control groups to establish
causal relationships between variables (causes) vs. observational research designs involve monitoring
and measuring variables as they naturally occur, focusing on
identifying correlations without manipulating any variables (associated w)

Question 7

experimental studies where participants are randomly assigned to either a treatment group or a control group to evaluate the effectiveness of an intervention while minimizing biases

Answer 7

Randomized controlled trials (RCTs)

Question 8

group of participants in a
study that does NOT receive the experimental treatment or
intervention

Answer 8

Control group:

Question 9

control group serves as

Answer 9

a baseline or a counterfactual to
compare the effects of the treatment on the experimental group.

Question 10

a group of participants in a study that receives
the treatment or intervention being tested, allowing researchers to
assess its effects compared to a control group

Answer 10

Treatment group:

Question 11

the process of randomly allocating
participants to control and treatment groups in a study to ensure that each group is comparable and to eliminate selection bias

Answer 11

Random assignment:

Question 12

when the sample of participants in a study is not
representative of the population being studied, leading to distorted
or unrepresentative results.

Answer 12

Selection bias

Question 13

random assignment assures

Answer 13

comparability between the control
group and the treatment group.

Question 14

random assignment v random sampling

Answer 14

Random assignment means participants in an experiment are
randomly designated to receive a treatment or intervention vs. Random sampling means that members of the population under
study are randomly selected to participate in a survey

Question 15

Randomized controlled trials are considered the gold standard for
causal research because they can cross the

Answer 15

four causal hurdles

Question 16

the four causal hurdles

Answer 16

1. Is there a credible causal mechanism that connects X to Y?
2. Can we eliminate the possibility that Y causes X?
3. Is there covariation between X and Y?
4. Have we controlled for all confounding variables Z that might
   make the association between X and Y spurious?

Question 17

Because randomized controlled trials pass these 4 causal hurdles,
they are described as having

Answer 17

high levels of internal validity

Question 18

the extent to which a study accurately measures
the causal relationship between the independent and dependent
variables, free from the influence of confounding factors.

Answer 18

Internal validity:

Question 19

Drawbacks of randomized controlled trials

Answer 19

-not every x can be experimentally manipulated (ex:gender)
-experiments can exhibit low levels of external validity
-some experiments can’t be perfored because they create ethical issues
-Just because an experiment finds that X causes Y does not mean
that X is the most important cause of Y

Question 20

the degree to which one can be confident that
the results of an analysis apply to the broader population

Answer 20

external validity

Question 21

RCTs can be administered in many ways, the
most common way is

Answer 21

in-person at a laboratory.

Question 22

experiments that leverage naturally occurring
random variations or events to investigate causal effects, without
direct manipulation of the independent variable by the researcher. (examples magnet school lotteries,
* military draft lotteries,
* random IRS audits,
* immigration lottery visas)

Answer 22

Natural experiments

Question 23

Natural experiments exhibit

Answer 23

high levels of internal validity.

Question 24

Natural experiments also exhibit –
because they study –

Answer 24

high levels of external validity, real-world scenarios and natural conditions

Question 25

a research method where participants are exposed to different experimental conditions within a single survey to examine how variations in the survey's content or format influence their responses

Answer 25

Survey experiments

Question 26

If the treatment is randomly assigned (as it usually is), a survey experiment exhibits

Answer 26

high levels of internal validity

Question 27

because survey experiments are executed on the computer – rather than in the real world - they exhibit

Answer 27

low levels of external validity.

Question 28

research conducted in a natural setting where participants are usually randomly assigned to treatment and control groups to assess the causal impact of an intervention in real-world conditions

Answer 28

Field experiments

Question 29

If the treatment is randomly assigned (as it usually is), a field experiment exhibits

Answer 29

high levels of internal validity

Question 30

Because survey experiments are executed in the real world – they also exhibit

Answer 30

high levels of external validity!

Question 31

studies that compare the effects of an intervention or treatment between pre-selected groups that are not randomly assigned, aiming to assess causal relationships while controlling for confounding variables

Answer 31

Controlled experiments

Question 32

we do controlled experiments instead of RCTS because

Answer 32

Practical constraints, such as logistical challenges or limited access to participants * Ethical concerns * The groups are pre-existing so random assignment is not possible * Cost and time

Question 33

research designs that aim to evaluate interventions or treatments without full randomization, often using pre-existing groups or natural conditions to infer causal relationships.

Answer 33

Quasi-experiments

Question 34

Types of quasi-experiments

Answer 34

-Regression discontinuity design (RDD) -Nonequivalent groups design -Pretest-posttest design -Interrupted time-series design - Matching design -Difference-in-differences (DiD) -Instrumental variable research design

Question 35

participants are assigned to treatment or control groups based on a cutoff score or threshold on a pretest measure, comparing outcomes just above and below the cutoff (ex: Example: evaluating the impact of a voter turnout program by comparing election outcomes for districts with voter turnout rates just above and just below a pre-set threshold that triggers eligibility for the program)

Answer 35

Regression discontinuity design (RDD)

Question 36

compares outcomes between groups that are not randomly assigned, often using pre-existing groups. (Example: evaluating the impact of a new voter ID law by comparing election turnout rates between states that enacted the law and neighboring states that did not)

Answer 36

Nonequivalent groups design

Question 37

measures the same group of participants before and after an intervention to assess changes over time. (Example: assessing the impact of a new civic education curriculum by measuring students' political knowledge and engagement levels before and after the curriculum is implemented in schools)

Answer 37

Pretest-posttest design

Question 38

compares data collected at multiple time points before and after an intervention to identify changes attributable to the intervention. (Example: analyzing the effect of a new campaign finance reform on political contributions by examining trends in donation amounts and frequency before and after the reform was implemented)

Answer 38

Interrupted time-series design

Question 39

researchers pair participants or groups based on similar characteristics to control for confounding variables and compare outcomes between the matched groups. (Example: comparing the effectiveness of two different voter outreach strategies by matching neighborhoods with similar demographic and political characteristics, and then comparing voter turnout rates between those exposed to each strategy)

Answer 39

Matching design

Question 40

estimates the effect of a naturally occurring intervention by comparing the changes in outcomes over time between a treatment group and a control group. (Example: Analyzing the impact of a new voter ID law by comparing changes in voter turnout before and after the law's implementation between states that adopted the law and similar states that did not)

Answer 40

Difference-in-differences (DiD)

Question 41

estimates causal relationships when randomization is not possible, by using a random, naturally occurring external variable (the instrument) that affects the treatment but is not directly related to the outcome except through its effect on the treatment. (Example: examining whether economic slowdowns lead to increased likelihood of conflict by using rainfall as an instrument, assuming that rainfall affects agricultural productivity and economic conditions but does not directly influence conflict)

Answer 41

Instrumental variable research design

Question 42

Because quasi-experiments do not include a fully random assignment of treatment, they exhibit

Answer 42

low levels internal validity.

Question 43

Because quasi-experiments rely on observational data from real-world settings, they exhibit

Answer 43

high levels of external validity.

Question 44

research designs in which the researcher does not have control over values of the independent variable because the independent variable occurs naturally

Answer 44

Observational research

Question 45

In cross-sectional data, the data vary by

Answer 45

geography, individual, institution, or other units

Question 46

--- does not vary in cross-sectional data

Answer 46

time

Question 47

Can observational research using cross-sectional data cross the four causal hurdles?

Answer 47

No, but we can get close

Question 48

Researchers using observational methods do their best to approximate causality, but

Answer 48

correlations between variables that are established by observational research should not be confused with causation.