Studies Flashcards

Question

Passamonti Procedure

Answer 1

Step 1: Gave the participants a drink which lowers levels of tryptophan (naturally occurring amino acid which synthetised serotonin) or a placebo Step 2: Wait a few hours between time drinking and time doing measurements Step 3: fMRI machine they were shown angry, sad and neutral, were told to label these emotions

Answer 2

The people who took the tryptophan depletion substance (TDS), there was a reduced connection between the amygdala and the Pre Frontal Cortex (PFC) - did not happen to control group or sad and neutral faces

Answer 3

If we have reduced levels of serotonin, the prefrontal cortex and amygdala do not communicate when showed anger/threat

Answer 4

Appropriate sample size of 30 healthy participants (calculate values of statistical significance) Placebo - participants and researchers were double blind to what condition they were in - reduces demand characteristics You cannot fake an fMRI Same people in the groups (practice affect) Causal relationship can be established.

Answer 5

Low sample to population generalisability Lacks mundane validity

Answer 6

Informed consent fMRI is a non-invasive technique

Answer 7

Depleting serotonin can cause people to feel discomfort and distress Any manipulation of brain chemistry can cause ethical issues for many reasons, such as withdrawing consent and long term affects.

Answer 8

Reactive Aggression Tryptophan Endogenous Agonist Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI) Frontal Lobe Amygdala Emoting Faces Fight or Flight Response Approach or Avoid Inhibition of Impulsive Reaction

Answer 9

The genetic heritability of depression

Answer 10

Correlational

Answer 11

Independent Measures

Answer 12

Sex and Zygosity

Answer 13

Concordance of Diagnosis

Answer 14

Step 1: Telephone interviews were carried out. Step 2: Depression was assessed at personal interview by modified DSM-IV (a statistical tool used to diagnose disorders) criteria Step 3: They were asked about their shared environment

Answer 15

Model fitting indicated that the heritability of liability to major depression was significantly higher in women (42%) than men (29%) and the genetic risk factors for major depression were moderately correlated in men and women. No significant differences were seen in the etiologic roles of genetic and environmental factors in major depression in three cohorts spanning birth years 1900–1958.

Answer 16

Heritability of major depression is higher in women than in men and that some genetic risk factors for major depression are sex-specific. In addition, the study confirms the level of heritability of major depression found in other studies, strengthening the reliability of European twin studies.

Answer 17

Very large sample size (15,493) 5 year period

Answer 18

Limited sample to population generalisability Correlational Self-reported data

Answer 19

Swedish Twin Registry Genetic Heritability Twin Study Major Depression Disorder (MDD) Zygosity (Monozygotic / Dizygotic) Telephone Interview DSM-IV (a statistical tool used to diagnose disorders) Shared Environment Individual Environment Correlational Study

Answer 20

Loftus and Palmer

Answer 21

1. To investigate whether the use of leading questions would affect the estimation of speed. 2. To investigate if participants who had a high-speed estimate in the first part of an experiment would say that they had seen broken glass in the second part of the experiment.

Answer 22

True Lab Experiment

Answer 23

Independent Measures

Answer 24

Convenience

Answer 25

i) Emotional intensity of the verb in the critical question ii) Leading glass question or not

Answer 26

i) Estimated Speed ii) Whether they remember seeing broken glass

Answer 27

1. Step 1: The participants were divided into five groups of nine students. Step 2: Seven films of traffic accidents were shown and the length of the films ranged from 5 to 30 seconds. The films were taken from driver's education films. Each participants watched all 7 films. Step 3: When the participants had watched a film they were asked to give an account of the accident they had seen and then they answered a questionnaire with different questions on the accident with one question being the critical question where they were asked to estimate the speed of the cars involved in the accident. Step 4: They were asked the same question but the critical question included different words. One group of participants were asked, "About how fast were the cars going when they hit each other?" The critical word "hit’" was replaced by ‘collided’, ‘bumped’ or ‘smashed’ or’ contacted’ in the other conditions. Followed the same steps as experiment 1, but with another question: "Did you see any broken glass?"

Answer 28

1. The mean estimates of speed were highest in the ‘smashed’ condition (40.8 mph) and lowest in the ‘contacted’ group (31.8 mph). Smashed 40.8 mph Collided 39.3 mph Bumped 38.1 mph Hit 34.0 mph Contacted 31.8 mph 2. Smashed 10.46 mph Hit 8.00 mph In the ‘smashed’ condition 16 participants said yes to having seen broken glass compared to 7 in the ‘hit’ condition. 6 participants in the control condition answered ‘yes’ to the question. 34 participants in the ‘smashed’ condition answered ‘no’ to the question compared to 43 in the ‘hit’ condition. Although most of the participants accurately reported no broken glass, more of the participants in the ‘smashed’ condition said they saw broken glass. Responses based on the did you see any broken glass?: Response: yes. Smashed: 16. Hit: 7. Control 6. Response: no. Smashed: 34. Hit: 43. Control 44.

Answer 29

Participants' memory of an accident could be changed by using suggestive questions.

Answer 30

Large sample size (1. 45 students 2. 150) Decoy questions Cause and effect relationship can be established

Answer 31

Low ecological validity Students were participants (they likely did not have much experience with driving)

Answer 32

Reconstructive Memory Eyewitness Testimony Leading Questions Misleading Post-Event Information Response Bias Schema Processing Verb Intensity Speed Estimation Low Ecological Validity Independent Measures Design

Answer 33

Yuille and Cutshall

Answer 34

To determine whether leading questions would affect memory of eyewitnesses at a real crime scene.

Answer 35

Experiment

Answer 36

Independent Measures

Answer 37

i) Leading headlight question or not ii) Leading panel question or not

Answer 38

i) Whether they remember seeing a broken headlight ii) Whether they remember seeing a yellow panel

Answer 39

Step 1: The participants gave an account of the incident, four months after the incident (21 people witnessed 13 agreed to participate). Step 2: They were asked question. Two leading questions were asked. Step 3: Half the group was asked if they saw "a" broken headlight on the getaway car. The other half were asked if they saw "the" broken headlight. In fact, there was no broken headlight. Step 4: The second question asked half the group if they saw "the" yellow panel on the car, and the other half was asked if they saw "a" yellow panel on the car (the panel was actually blue). Step 5: They were also asked to rate their stress on the day of the event on a seven-point scale.

Answer 40

It was found that eyewitnesses were actually very reliable. They recalled a large amount of accurate detail that could be confirmed by the original police reports. They also did not make errors as a result of the leading questions. 10 out of 13 of them said there was no broken headlight or yellow quarter panel, or that they had not noticed those particular details. The researchers found that the accuracy of the witnesses compared to the original police reports was between 79% and 84%. The witnesses reported that they didn't remember feeling afraid during the incident, but they did report having an "adrenaline rush."

Answer 41

The higher recall accuracy could be due to the emotional involvement.

Answer 42

Real event (authenticity) There was archival evidence (police records of the original testimonies) to confirm the accuracy of the memories.

Answer 43

It cannot be replicated The quantification of the qualitative responses from the participants is problematic and may be open to researcher bias.

Answer 44

Gun Store Robbery Eyewitness Testimony Flashbulb Memory Leading Questions Stress Misleading Post-Event Information Fight or Flight Response True Experiment with Naturalistic Elements Purposive Sample Not Replicable

Answer 45

To see whether learning a new skill would have an effect on the brains of the participants.

Answer 46

True field experiment

Answer 47

Independent measures

Answer 48

Self-selected with purposive

Answer 49

Whether they learned to juggle or not

Answer 50

Mass of Grey Matter in the Mid Temporal Lobe

Answer 51

Step 1: Brain scan 1 (baseline) - voxel based morphometry and pixel counting Step 2: Learn to juggle or not learn to juggle Step 3: Brain scan 2 - right after juggling was mastered - voxel based morphometry and pixel counting Step 4: Brain scan 3 - 3 months after juggling was mastered, where in this time the participants were forbidden to juggle - voxel based morphometry and pixel counting Step 5: Compare grey matter in the mid-temporal lobe between scans

Answer 52

The grey matter in the mid-temporal lobe of the juggling group was the highest in brain scan 2 and lowest in brain scan 1. The grey matter in the mid-temporal lobe of the control group remained the same.

Answer 53

Learning a new skill increases the grey matter in the brain. The rate of long term potentiation is greater than the rate of neural pruning.

Answer 54

No demand characteristics from MRI Quantified the scans with voxel based morphometry Pre-test, post-test method

Answer 55

Small sample size (24) - limited generalisability Low internal validity - lots of potential for confounding variables

Answer 56

Informed consent MRI is a non-invasive procedure

Answer 57

Participants may have been stressed at the task of mastering a skill.

Answer 58

Dendritic Branching Neural Pruning Long Term Potentiation Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) True Field Experiment Hebb's Theory Baseline Test Voxel-Based Morphometry (VBM) Mid-Temporal Lobe Three-Ball Cascade

Answer 59

Investigate the role of testosterone on aggression

Answer 60

True lab experiment

Answer 61

Independent Measures

Answer 62

Whether they took Testosterone or placebo

Answer 63

Activation of the Amygdala

Answer 64

Step 1: They (54 healthy females) took a placebo or extra testosterone (0.5mg) on a placebo, then waited 4-5 hours. Step 2: They were placed in the fMRI and different faces appeared. Step 3: The participants had to "approach" or "avoid" (make the faces bigger or smaller) with a joystick

Answer 65

Testosterone showed strongest effect on amygdala activity when approaching socially threatening (angry) faces.

Answer 66

Testosterone helps to prepare the body to fight when we are motivated to deal with a social threat by increasing activity in the amygdala. Increased amygdala activity could increase negative emotions like anger and trigger a "fight" response to the threat. This could explain the relationship that has been found between testosterone and aggression.

Answer 67

fMRI is reliable Causal relationship

Answer 68

Lacks mundane realism Reductionist

Answer 69

Testosterone Amygdala Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI) Increase / Decrease Image Size Emoting Faces Fight or Flight Response Approach or Avoid Social Threat Pre-Frontal Cortex (PFC) Physical Readiness

Answer 70

Englich and Mussweiler

Answer 71

To test if the sentence length requested by a prosecutor would unduly influence the decision made by a judge

Answer 72

True lab experiment

Answer 73

Independent measures

Answer 74

Whether the recommended sentence was a High or Low Anchor

Answer 75

Recommended Sentence for the guilty defendant

Answer 76

Step 1: The participants were given a case of alleged rape. Step 2: Then the case materials were tested on a group of 24 senior law students – this served as a pilot study. The average recommended prison term suggested by the law students was 17.21 months. This was then used as a basis for determining the anchors. Step 3: Participants were given the case materials along with copies of the penal code. They were asked to read through the materials and form an opinion about the case. Step 4: After they had formed an opinion about the case (about 15 minutes), they were given a questionnaire. Step 5: Half of the participants were told that the prosecutor demanded a 34-month sentence; while the other half were told that he demanded a 2-month sentence. Step 6: They were then asked the following questions: Do you think that the sentence was too low, adequate or too high? What sentence would you recommend? How certain are you about your sentencing decision? (a scale of 1 – 9) How realistic do you think this case is? (a scale of 1 – 9)

Answer 77

The average rating for the realistic nature of the case was 7.17, with a standard deviation of 1.3. The judges' certainty about their responses, however, were not as strong, with an average rating of 4.53 and a standard deviation of 2.29. When presented with a low anchor of two months, the average sentence was 18.78 months, with a standard deviation of 9.11. in the high anchor condition of 34 months, the average sentence was 28.70 months, with a standard deviation of 6.53.

Answer 78

The smaller anchor leads to a shorter, and closer to recommended, sentence. A larger anchor leads to a longer sentence.

Answer 79

Cause and effect relationship can be established. The use of the pilot group helped to establish reasonable anchors. The low scores on the judges' sense of confidence indicate that they may have been aware that their judgment was being influenced by other factors.

Answer 80

Small sample size (24 in pilot study and 19 in second study) Very short time to review case material

Answer 81

Anchoring Bias Dual Processing Model Systems 1 and 2 Rational Thinking (Controlled) Intuitive Thinking (Automatic) Independent Measures Design Trial Judges Sentence Length Demands Participant Variability Pilot Study

Answer 82

Peterson and Peterson

Answer 83

To investigate the duration of short-term memory.

Answer 84

True Lab Experiment

Answer 85

Repeated Measures

Answer 86

Convenience

Answer 87

Time delay before recall

Answer 88

Recall Accuracy of Trigrams

Answer 89

Step 1: The student sat at a table with the experimenter faced the same direction on the student's right. There was a shield between the two. In front of the student was two lights on a black box, Step 2: The students were presented with trigrams one at a time, and had to be recalled after intervals of 3,6,9,12,15 or 18 seconds. Step 3: After hearing a trigram, participants were asked to count backward in threes or fours from a specified random digit number until they saw a red light appear (then they recalled the trigram).

Answer 90

After 3 seconds 80% of the trigrams were recalled correctly. After 6 seconds this fell to 50%. After 18 seconds less than 10% of the trigrams were recalled correctly.

Answer 91

Short-term memory has a limited duration (of about 18 seconds) when rehearsal is prevented.

Answer 92

Comparing conditions not people

Answer 93

Small sample size low (24) sample to population generalisability

Answer 94

Short-Term Memory Trigram Suspension of Rehearsal Verbal Stimulation Filler Task Consonant Syllables Repeated Measures Opportunity Sampling Controlled Setting

Answer 95

To investigate how the memory of a story is affected by previous knowledge.

Answer 96

"Experiment"

Answer 97

Independent Measures

Answer 98

Convenience and purposive

Answer 99

The participants' cultural background / schema

Answer 100

Recall Accuracy of The War of the Ghosts

Answer 101

Step 1: Bartlett told participants a Native American legend called The War of the Ghosts Step 2: Bartlett allocated the participants to one of two conditions: one group was asked to use repeated reproduction, where participants heard the story and were told to reproduce it after a short time and then to do so again repeatedly over a period of days, weeks, months or years. The second group was told to use serial reproduction, in which they had to recall the story and repeat it to another person.

Answer 102

Bartlett found that there was no significant difference between the way that the groups recalled the story. Bartlett found that participants in both conditions changed the story as they tried to remember it - a process called distortion. Bartlett found that there were three patterns of distortion that took place. Assimilation: The story became more consistent with the participants’ own cultural expectations - that is, details were unconsciously changed to fit the norms of British culture. Levelling: The story also became shorter with each retelling as participants omitted information which was seen as not important. Sharpening: Participants also tended to change the order of the story in order to make sense of it using terms more familiar to the culture of the participants. They also added detail and/or emotions. The participants overall remembered the main themes in the story but changed the unfamiliar elements to match their own cultural expectations so that the story remained a coherent whole although changed.

Answer 103

Bartlett's study indicates that remembering is not a passive but rather an active process, where information is retrieved and changed to fit into existing schemas. This is done in order to create meaning in the incoming information.

Answer 104

Lacks experimental design No control group Limited sample to population generalisability No causal link Did not use standardised instructions

Answer 105

War of the Ghosts Cultural Schema Repeated Reproduction Serial Reproduction Assimilation Levelling Sharpening Reconstructive Memory Quasi Experiment Distortion

Answer 106

To see if people could remember more short words than long words in a serial recall test

Answer 107

True Lab Experiment

Answer 108

Independent/Repeated Measures

Answer 109

Convenience

Answer 110

Whether they engaged articulatory suppression or were silent

Answer 111

Serial Recall Accuracy of one- and five-syllable words

Answer 112

Step 1: EXPERIMENT 7 Step 2: Familiarization – Participants were introduced to two sets of words: One-syllable words (short words, Five-syllable words (long words) Step 3: Word Lists Created – Two pools of 10 words each (one for short words, one for long words) were created. Step 4: Random Selection of Words – From each pool, 16 five-word lists were made by sampling words at random without replacement. Step 5: Experimental Conditions – Participants were randomly assigned to one of two conditions: Silent recall (normal memory recall). Articulatory suppression (repeating an irrelevant sound while trying to remember words). Step 6: Memory Task – Participants had to recall the words in order (serial recall task). Step 7: Data Collection – The dependent variable (DV) was serial recall accuracy for both short and long words. Step 8: Comparison of Results – The researchers compared recall performance between the two conditions (silent vs. articulatory suppression).

Answer 113

* Word Length Effect Observed - Participants remembered more short words (one-syllable) compared to long words (five-syllable). - This supports the idea that short-term memory is limited by time, not just capacity—you can rehearse short words faster * Articulatory Suppression Eliminated the Word Length Effect - When participants were asked to repeat an irrelevant sound (articulatory suppression condition), the word length effect disappeared. This means they struggled to rehearse the words mentally, leading to similar recall levels for short and long words.

Answer 114

* Short-term memory relies on phonological (speech-based) coding. * The word length effect happens because people rehearse words subvocal (in their heads), but this is disrupted when articulatory suppression is used. * Supports the Phonological Loop in Baddeley & Hitch’s Working Memory Model (WMM), where: - Phonological Store → Holds verbal info temporarily. Articulatory Control Process → Rehearses the info to keep it active.

Answer 115

Very low sample size (12)

Answer 116

Short-Term Memory Modality Specific Phonological Loop Visuospatial Sketchpad Silent Condition Articulatory Suppression Word Length Effect Encoding Working Memory Capacity

Answer 117

The extent to Androstadienone (AND) and Estratetraenol (EST) would affect signalling the point light walker.

Answer 118

True Lab Experiment

Answer 119

Repeated measures

Answer 120

Whether they took AND, EST, or placebo

Answer 121

Sex Identification of the Point Light Walker

Answer 122

Step 1: Cotton ball under nose Step 2: Participants were presented a point-light walker task (PLW), a set of dots that move in a way which represents the properties of human motion. Step 3: The participants were asked to observe the stick figure in motion and to identify sex. Step 4: They did the same task for 3 consecutive days, never did different conditions on the same day.

Answer 123

Heterosexual females and gay males were exposed to AND, they had a higher rate of identifying the stick figure as "masculine" than the control group. AND had no significant effect on heterosexual men or lesbian women. By contrast, smelling EST systematically biases heterosexual males toward perceiving the walkers as more feminine. The effect was not statistically significant in bisexual and lesbian women.

Answer 124

It appears that AND and EST may have some effect on human sexual behaviour.

Answer 125

True lab experiment Cause and effect relationship Counterbalancing - no order effects

Answer 126

Many confounding variables Sex identification Concentration of steroids much greater than naturally occurring Hare replication similar study with a different conclusion

Answer 127

Androstadienone (AND) Estratetraenol (EST) Sympathetic Arousal Hypothalamus Sexual Orientation Point-Light Walker Task Clove Oil Counterbalancing Sex Identification True Experiment

Answer 128

To investigate patterns in disgust responses.

Answer 129

Independent Measures

Answer 130

Self-selected

Answer 131

Whether the images were disease-salient or disease-irrelevant

Answer 132

Rating of Disgust

Answer 133

Step 1: Online survey of 40000 participants from 165 different countries. Participants were asked their age, sex, country etc. Step 2: Participants were shown 20 images, 1 by 1 on separate screen and rate them 1-5. These were 7 pairs of diseased and non-diseased photos. Step 3: For each image, they were asked to rank their level of disgust.

Answer 134

The disgust reaction was strongest regarding those images which threaten one’s immune system. It decreased with age, and disgust reactions were higher in women than in men.

Answer 135

Disgust is an adaptation designed to prevent the acquisition of infectious diseases. This research also supports the idea of disgust as a key to successful reproduction.

Answer 136

Large number of participants 77000 (40000) decreases variability. Findings support evolutionary theory, that disgust acts as our biological mechanism to keep us away from threats to our immune system.

Answer 137

Hard to rank disgust; doing so is not consistent from participant to participant. Survey was the research method, therefore a limitation includes accuracy of participants' response. As this was self-report data, it is subject to demand characteristics.

Answer 138

The exposure to confronting and disgusting images raises the consideration around protection from harm. Some participants may have found this a disturbing task.

Answer 139

Online Survey Disease-Salient Stimuli Immune System Disgust (Primary Emotion) Natural Selection Genetic Reproduction Environmental Adaptation Risk of Disease Disgust Sensitivity Sex Differences

Answer 140

Tversky and Kahneman

Answer 141

To test the influence of the anchoring bias on decision-making

Answer 142

True Lab Experiment

Answer 143

Independent measures

Answer 144

Convenience

Answer 145

Whether the sequence began with a High or Low Anchor

Answer 146

Estimated Product to the Mathematical Problem

Answer 147

Step 1: Participants in the “ascending condition” were asked to quickly estimate the value of 1 X 2 X 3 X 4 X 5 X 6 X 7 X 8 in five seconds. Step 2: Those in the “descending condition” were asked to quickly estimate the value of 8 X 7 X 6 X 5 X 4 X 3 X 2 X 1.

Answer 148

The researchers found that the median for the ascending group was 512; the median for the descending group was 2250. The actual value is 40320.

Answer 149

The anchor was the cause of the higher (or lower) estimates by the students.

Answer 150

95 participants High internal validity

Answer 151

Low ecological validity

Answer 152

Dual Processing Model Systems 1 and 2 Rational Thinking (Controlled) Intuitive Thinking (Automatic) Heuristics Cognitive Miser Anchoring Bias Ascending and Descending Conditions Independent Measures Design Median Value

Answer 153

Bransford and Johnson

Answer 154

To determine whether schema activation would result in better understanding and recall of an ambiguous text.

Answer 155

True lab experiment

Answer 156

Independent measures

Answer 157

Convenience/Self-Selected

Answer 158

Whether context was provided, what form it took, and when it was given

Answer 159

Recall Accuracy of Idea Units from an Unfamiliar Passage

Answer 160

Step 1: The participants were allocated to one of five conditions - no context, no context (read passage twice), context after, partial context, context before. Step 2: All participants were told that they were going to hear a tape-recorded passage. They were told that they would later be asked to recall the passage as accurately as possible. Step 3: All participants were tested at the same time, but they had different answer booklets. Step 4: Participants were given five minutes for recall.

Answer 161

The two groups with the lowest recall were no context read once, and no context after. Next was the group with no context read twice. Next was partial context. The best was context in advance. Understanding was also shown to be affected.

Answer 162

The researchers concluded that "prior knowledge of a situation does not guarantee its usefulness for comprehension. In order for prior knowledge to aid comprehension, it must become an activated semantic context."

Answer 163

52 participants High internal validity Cause and effect can be established

Answer 164

Lacks ecological validity It is not possible to know that an actual "laundry schema" was active while listening to the text.

Answer 165

Contextual Prerequisites Idea Units Independent Measures Design Laundry Study Pictorial Context Written Context Comprehension Artificial Task Low Ecological Validity Highly Replicable

Studies Flashcards

(215 cards)