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Karl Popper (1902-1994)
formulated the problem in terms of what distinguishes science from non-science (pseudo science). He called it the Problem of Demarcation
Vienna Circle (Wiener Kreis)
a group of scientists and philosophers who met regularly to discuss the implications of the major revolutions in science happening in that time, especially those triggered by Einsteins work
- they formulated a philosophical approach called Logical Positivism
Logical Positivism
was a reaction against a style of philosophy (popular in Germanuy in that time) which emphasized pompous, difficult and obscure writing
- in order to sort meaningful statements from meaningless nonsense:
- definitions (necessarily true)
- verifiable empirical statements (statements about the world)
- Statements were only meaningful, if they satisfied the Verification Criterion
Verification Criterion
one could specify the steps that would verify the statement was true
(meaningless = metaphysical nonsense)
Science (logical Positivism)
science could be construed as a set of empirical statements, dealing only with possible observations that could be directly verified, and theoretical statements which acted as definitions linking theoretical terms to observations.
Operational Definition (Percy Bridgeman 1927)
defines the meaning of a concept in terms of the precise procedures used to determine its presence and quantity.
“Definition” is not a definition, but rather a way to measure more-or-less imperfectly the thing we want to measure
2 problems in determining whether a sentence was verifiable
1) How to verify statements about specific individuals and their observable properties
2) the problem of verifying generalizations
problem 1 to be solved by direct observation
problem 2 to be solved by a putative logical process called induction
Induction vs Deduction
- induction is contrasted with deduction. induction is the process of inferring universal rules given only particular observations. the conclusion cannot be guaranteed to be true, hence the inference is not deductive
- deduction is the process of drawing inferences such that if the premises are true, the conclusion is guaranteed to be true
Inductivists (incl. Logical Positivists)
believe that science proceeds by induction. Science is objective, because it is based on actual observations rather than just speculation and it goes from those particular observations logically - inductively - to general rules
Popper denied all aspects of Logical Positivism
he argued that metaphysics could be not only meaningful but also important
* positivists wished to view science as a method of moving towards certain knowledge: knowledge based on a firm foundation of observation and induction
* the core value of Popper’s philosophy was Fallibilism: we may be wrong in anything we believe.
David Hume (1711-1776)
argued that we are never justified in reasoning from repeated instances of which we have experiences, to other instances of which we’ve had no experience yet
Critical Tradition (Thanes 636-546 BC)
suppressed by Christianityh
Popper thought how people invent their theories is not relevant to the logic of science
the distinction between the process of conceiving an idea (Psychology of Knowledge) and the process of examining it logically (Logic of Knowledge) is more commonly known as the distinction between the Context of DIscovery and the Context of Justification (Reichenbach 1891-1953. Reichenbach founded the Berlin Circle)
Falsifiability
falsifiability is Poppers Demarcation Criterion between science and metaphysics.
* Popper sees science as the process of proposing falsifiable theories and then rigorously attempting to falsify them. It is only when theories are falsified, that we get feedback from nature and a chance to improve our knowledge
(however if theories survive falsification they are not proved or established)
“corroborated” = confirm or give support to a statement/theory/finding
Popper pointed out that a theoretical system can always escape falsification by doubting the observations, or changing a definition
according to Popper, observation statements are finally accepted only by decision or agreement
2 criticisms of Poppers approach
1) no theory is falsifiable at all
2) all theories are falsified anyway
Duhem-Quine Problem
Given falsification, how do we know which component of the system to reject?
widely recognized problem of scientific inference
Consilience (Whewell 1840)
converging evidence with different background assumptions is very important in science
Verisimilitude (truthlikeness)
2 false theories and you still prefer one to the other, if we think in terms of how closely each approximates the truth
Vitalisme en het hermeticisme
het idee dat de kosmos leeft en dat natuurlijke processen gedreven worden door levende krachten
- voor vitalisten was het idee van een “levenskracht” of een “levensvonk” dat objecten levend maakte, levensecht (verschil tussen leven en niet-leven is levensvonk)
Wiener Kreis
- stelden paal en perk aan vage, metafysische, betekenisloze verklaringen en bewegingen
- groep filosofen wiens denkbeelden ten grondslag liggen aan het Logisch Positivisme
- Logisch Positivisten stelden dat wetenschap zo objectief als mogelijk diende te zijn en dat de wetenschapper enkel empirisch verifieerbare uitlatingen mocht doen
- Popper verzette zich tegen de kern van het logisch Positivisme (dat wetenschap draait om het zoeken naar bevestiging). De benadering van wetenschap die door hem ontstond is Kritisch Rationalisme
Logisch Positivisme = Logisch Empirisme
- objectieve wetenschap
- scheiding tussen betekenisvolle en betekenisloze uitspraken was van belang en dus zocht men naar een criterium die dit onderscheid kon maken.
- 2 soorten betekenisvolle uitspraken: definities en empirische uitspraken (in de filosofie werden dit ook wel analytische en synthetische uitspraken genoemd)
Definities zijn betekenisvol, maar leiden niet tot nieuwe kennis
empirische uitspraken zijn niet per definitie waar, maar zijn wel te verifiëren met onze zintuigen
- Logisch Positivisten vinden alleen empirische uitspraken waardevol voor de wetenschap
- Operationele Definities komen uit het Logisch Positivistisch ideaal voort. Het biedt een manier om op het eerste gezicht niet-verifieerbare uitspraken, alsnog verifieerbaar te makenf
Verification Criterion
if one can specify the steps that would verify whether the statement was true