Study Deck Flashcards
(160 cards)
1
Q
Fragmentation and regeneration
A
First the body is broken into pieces (fragmentation) and these pieces regenerate and grow the lost body parts. This occurs in some annelids, sponges, cnidarians, echinoderms, and tunicates
2
Q
Budding
A
occurs in some cnidarians. An outgrowth forms (that is a cloned individual) that grows until it is “dropped off”
3
Q
Gemmule formation
A
Occurs in sponges when a mass of cells is formed that is capable of developing into a new organism or into an adult freshwater sponge
4
Q
Parthenogenesis
A
embryo develops from an unfertilized egg cell. Ex- Bees, wasps, ants, komodo
5
Q
Oviparity
A
Laying eggs after fertilization
6
Q
Ovoviparity
A
Fertilized eggs are retained in the body of the female and the young being nourished by the egg yolk.
Many reptiles
7
Q
Viviparity
A
Young are nourished by a placenta in the body of the female
8
Q
Monotremes
A
Mammals that lay eggs
9
Q
Marsupials
A
Give birth to embryos that complete their development in a pouch
10
Q
Placental mammals
A
Give birth to young that are more developed
11
Q
Vas (ductus) deferens
A
Seminal duct ascends along the posterior border of the epididymis and penetrates the inguinal canal and then the pelvic cavity-carries sperm out of testes
12
Q
Prostate gland
A
Secretes a milky, slightly acidic fluid that contains citrate
* 25% volume of semen
13
Q
Epididymis (maturation)
A
Transport Sperm
Comma-shaped organ that lies along the posterior border of each testis
and consisting of a tightly coiled ductus epididymis (divided into a head, body, and tail)
14
Q
Seminal vesicles
A
Secrete an alkaline (for the neutralization of acidic fluids in the female
reproductive tract)
15
Q
Bulbourethral (Cowper’s) gland
A
Alkaline fluid and mucus that neutralize acids in the
urethra and decrease damage to sperm
16
Q
Leydig cells
A
secrete testosterone
17
Q
Fallopian Tubes
A
Transport ova from the ovaries to the uterus- site of fertilization
Tubes extending from upper corners of the uterus to the ovaries- fimbriae at end help capture the releasing egg
18
Q
What are the basic functions of the circulatory system
A
Transport of necessary materials (O2 and glucose) to and wastes (CO2 and metabolic waste) from the cells of the body
19
Q
Cnidarians
A
Do not need circulatory system- overall structure like a sponge
cells being close to the outside environment or gastrovascular activity
like sponge- diffusion occurs between the cells and the outside environment or the cells and the gastrovascular cavity
20
Q
Sponges
A
No need for circulatory system- each cell close to either external environment
Water flowing through a channel in the body or the spongocoel
21
Q
Flatworms
A
No need for circulatory system- Close to the environment or highly branches intestines indusion is adequate
22
Q
Nematodes
A
and rotifers are pseudocoelomates that use fluid in the pseudocoelom (cavity derived partially of tissue of mesodermal origin between the gut and the body wall) for circulation
23
Q
Granulocytes
A
neutrophils, eosinophils and basophils
24
Q
Agranulocytes
A
Lymphocytes and monocytes
25
Immunity
Lymphocytes
26
Inflammatory response
Eosinophils, basophils
27
Phagocytosis
Neutrophils
28
Relaxation period
Ventricles start to relax; all four chambers are in diastole (the stage of relaxation or dilation of the heart muscle).
29
Ventricular filling
AV valves open and the blood that has flowed into the atria during ventricular contraction-rushes into the ventricles (due to an increase
in pressure in the atria)
30
SA node fires, which leads to
atrial depolarization
During this phase the AV valves are open but both semilunar valves are closed.
31
Ventricular systole (contraction)-
after the impulse passes from the AV node and through the rest of the conduction system
Initiates ventricular depolarization and contraction. The AV valves close and then the semilunar valves open and blood is pushed into the aorta and the pulmonary trunk.
32
Cardiac excitation
begins in the sinoatrial node (SA node)- Right atrial wall- travel through gap junctions of intercalated discs- causing atria R and L to contract simultaneously
33
Resistance
Ability to ward off disease that occurs in both invertebrates and vertebrates
34
Innate
already present as part of body from birth- prevent non-self agent from entering the body
35
non- specific
(act against non-self) cells or other antigens- act quickly in preventing successful invasion of disease-causing organism
36
Adaptive
act against specific intruder that takes a longer time to develop the first time- depending on how long the memory lasts
37
Specific
act against specific intruder that takes a longer time to develop the first time- depending on how long the memory lasts
38
What is the normal microbiota and what is its role in defense
Outcompetes some disease- causing organism by preventing them from colonizing or keeping their number below what is required to cause infection
39
Humoral
Neutralize and eliminate extracellular pathogens and toxins
40
Cell- mediated Immunity
Eliminate intracellular pathogens, infected cells and cancer cells
41
Phloem anatomy and physiology
Living cells (sieve tube) with sieve plates
Transport organic nutrient bidirectionally using pressure- flow mechanisms
42
Xylem anatomy and physiology
Dead cells (tracheids and vessel elements) thick, lignified walls
Transport water and minerals unidirectionally from roots to leaves using cohesion- tension mechanism
43
Innate immunity
Phagocytes- neutrophils, macrophages, dendritic cells- engulf and destroy pathogens through phagocytosis
Natural killer cells- recognize and destroy infected cells and cancer cells
44
Inflammation
Response to tissue damage or infection- increase blood flow to infected area, swelling, heat, recruitment of immune cells to site of injury or infection- contains pathogens, remove damaged cells and debris, initiate tissue repair processes
45
Adaptive immunity
Highly specific- target pathogen or antigen
Memory- immunological memory- stronger response upon re- exposure to the same pathogen
46
Components antibody mediate immunity
* B cells
* Antibodies
* Memory B cells
47
Components antibody mediate immunity
* T cells
* Helper T cells
* Cytotoxic T cells
* Regulatory T cells
48
Accessory organs of digestion
Liver, Gallbladder, Pancreas, Salivary Glands, Tongue
49
Organs of digestion
Mouth, Esophagus, Stomach, Small intestine, Large intestine, Liver, Pancreas
50
What two systems are involved in regulation and coordination?
Nervous and Endocrine System
51
P wave
Atrial Depolarization
Contraction
52
QRS
Ventricular Depolarization
Contraction
53
T wave
Ventricular Repolarization
Restore Membrane Potential
54
Chemotaxis
colony stimulating factors increase production and differentiation of white blood cells
55
Interferons
act against viruses
56
Interleukins- diverse functions-
tumor necrosis assist in inflammation and apoptosis
57
Surface receptors
bind specific compounds called ligands and trigger responses like chemotaxis
58
Chemicals
cytokines one cell diffuse onto another cell triggering a change in the receiving cells resulting in chemotaxis
59
Lymphocytes- T and B
Central players in adaptive immunity
60
Antigen presenting cells
macrophages, B cells, Dendritic cells
61
Dendritic cells
Initiating and regulating adaptive immune response by capturing, processing and presenting antigens to T cells
62
Molecules and Receptors
Major Histocompatibility complex (MHC), Antibodies, T Cell receptors
63
Cytokines
regulate immunity, inflammation and hematopoiesis
64
Chlorophyll
Vascular (conducting) tissue in a plant that transports organic materials such as glucose
65
Phloem
Opening in the lower surface of leaf that allows gases (O2 and CO2) in and out of leaf
66
Stomata
Pigment in plants necessary for photosynthesis
67
Xylem
Waxy layer that protect a leaf from dehydration (drying out)
68
Chloroplast
The layer of tissue in a leaf where most photosynthesis takes place
69
Guard cells
Conducting tissues in a plant that transport water and nutrients
70
Palisade
Layer of tissue in a leaf that provides support
71
Cuticle
Lower skin of a leaf
72
Spongy mesophyll
Organelle in a plant cell that contains chlorophyll
73
Lower epidermis
Pairs of cells responsible for opening and closing stomata
74
Upper epidermis
Upper skin of a leaf
75
Light dependent reactions
convert light energy into chemical energy producing ATP and NADPH and O2 released as byproduct
76
Light independent reactions (Calvin cycle)
occur in stroma and use ATP and NADPH to fix CO2 into G3P, used to form glucose and regenerate RuBP
77
Erosion
Soil and rock being moved from one place to another from water, wind, ice, gravity
78
Desertification
Land becoming degraded, forming desert- like conditions
79
Farmland conversion
Converting agricultural land into non- agricultural. Urban development, infrastructure projects, industrial facilities
80
Greater the Po2
O2 will bind
81
Po2 decrease
Bonds between iron and o2 break releasing O2
82
Hemizygous males only have
one sex chromosome
Also interesting reproductive system that occurs in grasshoppers, crickets, and many other males
83
What is the animal that alternates between sexual and asexual reproduction
Pea aphids
84
Asexual reproduction does not produce
Genetic variation
More advantageous in non- changing environments
85
Sexual reproduction
Advantageous in changing environments
86
Sequential Hermaphrodite
Organism with both. male and female sex organs maturing at different times
ex- fish, gastropods, flowering plants
87
Where does sexual reproduction in vertebrates occur
In the ocean- keeps gametes moist does not require simultaneous release of gametes by male and female
88
External fertilization
shedding of gametes outside of body
absence of copulatory structures or other specialized structures for internal fertilization
occur outside of body
occurs in many aquatic animals
many fish, most amphibians, sea urchins,
89
Internal fertilization
involves copulatory structures
hemipenes of lizards and snaked
specialized structures- spermatophires
Positioning of cloacas next to each other- birds
90
Seminiferous tubules (sustentacular cells)
extend from the basement membrane to the lumen of tubule
Spaces between adjacent seminiferous tubules are clusters of interstitial endocrinocytes of Leydig cells- secrete testosterone
91
Corpus luteum
ramnant of an ovulated mature follicle- produces progesterone, estrogens, relaxin, inhibit until it degenerates into a corpus albicans
92
Innermost layers of granulosa called
Corona radiata
93
Invertebrate circulation
Size, shape, complexity, level of activity play are important factors for the movement of materials to and from the environment within an animals body
94
Open circulation
no distinction between the circulating fluid and the body fluids or intertitial fluids- together termed hemolymph- move through sinuses and is pumped by one or more hearts
Found in anthropods, most mollusks
95
Closed circulatory system
fluid (blood) is enclosed within blood vessels and is separated from the rest of the body's fluids
Found in annelids, vertebrates and cephalopods
96
Where are platelets found
Within the matrix
97
What are the functions of blood
transportation of gases, nutrients, and wastes
Regulation of various body functions via hormones and thermoregulation
Protection from disease causing organism- toxins, tears, or breaks in the blood vessels
98
Fish blood
Fewer red blood cells lower hematocrit
RBC- nucleated and function in immunity
WBC- heterophil equivalent to a neutrophil and platelets
99
Amphibian blood
Include nucleated RBCs
Reptiles have WBCs- unique, large azurophils. Modified monocytes along with heterophils
100
Bird lack what type of blood
Azurophils
101
Some mammals have heterophils and a few
Nucleated RBCs- camels
102
Humans and most mammals RBCs are
anucleated appear as biconcave disks
103
WBCs function
immunity, (lymphocytes), inflammatory response (eosinophils, basophils, phagocytosis (neutrophils)
104
Platelets are
Cellular fragments- complex clotting mechanism
105
Heart of fish have
One- cycle chamber
Heart is tube
Four chambers arranged sequentially
First two chambers (sinus venosus and atrium) - collection chambers
Second two- ventricle and conus arteriosus- pumping chambers
No pulmonary circulation- only systemic circulation
106
Heart of amphibians have
Pulmonary and systemic circulation- gas exchange across skin
Two atria
One ventricle
Reptiles- pulmonary circulation and systemic
Two atria
One ventricle with partial septum
107
Aquatic turtles have
cutaneous gas exchange- two circulatory systems- pulmonary and systemic
108
Heart of birds, mammals, crocodiles have
True two cycle pump, pulmonary and systemic circulation
Two atria and two ventricles
109
Exchange of materials between the blood in the capillaries and surrounding tissues occur
Primarily due to diffusion, endocytosis, exocytosis, bulk flow through clefts between adjoining cells due to pressure
110
Gas exchange involves
Diffusion across membranes- surface must be moist
111
What does passive transport not require
does not require an energy expenditure- instead of concentration, (partial) pressure important component in diffusion of gases
112
Pressure value of gas
Allows one to predict the net movement of that gas at a surface where gas exchange can occur
113
Partial pressure of O2 at sea levels
Multiplying the atmospheric pressure (760mmHg X % of O2 in atmosphere)
Partial pressure at sea level- 160 m Hg
Partial pressure CO2 at sea level- 0.29mm Hg
114
Higher the temp
Lower dissolved oxygen
115
Aquatic animals and oxygen
Aquatic organism that are mobile need to move around to find area with an adequate amount of oxygen for their need- more energy for them to acquire O2 for cellular respiration
116
Gas exchange where cutaneous gas exchange occurs over the entire surface of the animal
Sponges, cnidarians, flatworms- gases can be exchanged ver the surface of the cells readily
117
Integumentary exchange
Gas exchange through the skin, do not require circulatory systems to provide O2 to and take CO2 away from the cels of their bodies- skin must be moist- appropriate high surface to volume ratio for adequate moisture to occur
ex- Ologochaeteworms, Lungless Salamanders
118
Limited cutaneous exchange
Aquatic turtles gas exchange across moist epithelial surfaces continuous with their mouth and anus
119
Tracheal respiration
Movement of gas through branched openings with diffusion occurring at the tips of these opening
Most common mechanism for gas exchange in air breathing- terrestrial antropods
120
Gills are
Localized respiratory organ- efficient circulatory system to deliver of oxygen throughout body
121
Positive or negative breathing do amphibians use
Positive pressure- inflation of lungs due to forced air flow
122
Airflow of birds
Flow of air- unidirectional outgoing and incoming air do not mix
Have anterior and posterior air sacs and parabronchi
Highly efficient flow through system
123
Respiration definition
exchange of gases between the atmosphere
124
Pharynx
entrance to the trachea
125
Trachea
Passageway of air to and from the lungs
126
Bronchus
Airways leading into the lungs that branch
127
External pulmonary ventilation
exchange of gases between the alveoli of the lungs and blood of the capillaries gains O2 and loses CO2
Does not require energy
128
Oxygen from the air within the alveoli will enter
Blood when partial pressure of the deoxygenated blood is lower than the pCO2 of the air in the alveoli
129
pCO2 of blood arriving from the heart to the lungs is
Higher than the pCO2 of the air results in CO2 moving out of the blood and into the alveoli
130
Resistance
Ability to ward off disease that occurs in both invertebrates and vertebrates
131
Innate
already present in body- usually non- specific (act against non- self) from entering the body
Recognition of non- self
132
Adaptive
Developing over- time and specific takes longer time to develop
133
What does Chitin do?
Lines the digestive system of insects
134
What does the Major Histocompatibility Complex found on a body's cell membrane act as
Name tag
135
In invertebrates the immune cells are called
Hemocytes (phagocytes)- circulate through the hemolymph
Some hemocytes produces and release chemical including antimicrobial peptides that either kill or inactivate pathogens- others attack double stranded RNA
136
Immune response in insects
Binding of immune cells activates transmembrane Toll receptors- results in the production and secretion of defensive proteins that at against pathogens
137
Immune cells of vertebrates include
Granulocytes- white blood cells- neutrophils, basophils, eosinophils, mononuclear phagocytes (blood monocytes and in tissues, macrophages) and dendritic cells develop from monocytes and the various lymphocytes
138
What roles do basophils play
Allergic reactions and inflammation due to histamine and other chemicals found in their granules- histamine increasing capillary permeability- involved in inflammation
139
What roles do Eosinophils play
Involved in parasitic infections and allergies
140
What are mononuclear phagocytes in blood called
Monocytes- in tissues differentiate into macrophages
Phagocytic cells that do not contain granules
141
What are dendritic cells
Sentinel cells- most of them developing from monocytes
Phagocytes- present potential antigens to cells of the adaptive response or third line of defense
142
Cytokines
From one cell diffuse into another cell triggering a change in the receiving cell resulting into chemotaxis- colony stimulating factors increase production and differentiation of white blood cells
143
Interleukins
Diverse functions, tumor necrosis factor, multiple functions, chemicals that assist in inflammation and apoptosis
144
What does the complete system consist of
Proteins that participate in lysis, inflammation, opsonization (process that prepares materials for phagocytosis) and phagocytosis- assists in specific immunity
145
What is the lymphatic system involved in
Both specific and nonspecific defenses- filters out microbes from tissue fluids and the lymph nodes contain phagocytes and lymphocytes
146
What roles do immunoglobulins play
Protein that play roles in destruction of the antigens
Antibodies- produced by plasma or Effect B cells- part of the Humoral or Antibody- Mediated Components of the Adaptive and Specific Immunity
147
What is the third line of defense
Self- tolerance
Critical so line of defense so that the cells and antibodies of the immune system do not attack and destroy the body's own cells
148
What is the secondary response
Faster, greater in amplitude than the primary response- involve memory cells
149
Neutralization role in antibodies
Antigen is coated with antibodies cannot attach to the cells
150
What is opsonization in antibodies
Coated with antigens that are more easily consumed by phagocytic cells
151
Compliment system
Activated by antigen antibody complexes
Preventing adherence by binding pili
Cross-linking produces large antigen- antibody complexes that are consumed by phagocytic cells
152
T helpers
release compounds that attract phagocytic cells to inflamed tissues
153
Cytotoxic T cells
Recognize and bind to the surface of "altered" cells virally infected cells or cancerous cells and release a protein (perforin) destroys the cell
154
Regulatory T cells
Stop immune system from overreacting
155
Killed, whole vaccines
Made from the entire pathogen after treating the organisms with formalin, radiation, or some other agent that does not destroy antigenicity- rabies, pertussis, polio
156
Live attenuated vaccines
Eliminating the virulence factors from the microbes- measles, mumps, TB
157
Sun unit or cell free vaccines
Prepared from portions of he microbes that result antigenicity
158
What does clonal selection apply to
both B and T lymphocytes process where a lymphocytes antigen binding site binds to an antigen allowing for the lymphocyte to proliferate and differentiate into Effector Cells and Memory Cells
Once B cell activated can proliferate and produce millions of progeny- short- term plasma cells
159
Helper T cells
Involved in specific immunity, participate in the activation of B cells and release compounds tat attract phagocytic cells to inflamed tissues
160
Activation
Naive cells activated directly by pathogens of Antigen Presenting Cells
Naive Helper T cells activated by antigen presenting cells- active or effector T cells promote activate of naive Cytotoxic T or B cells
