study final

Question 1

In categorical reasonng, the statements or claims of interest are..

Answer 1

categorical statements, those that make simple assertions about categories, or classes, of things

Question 2

In ___ _____ ___ statemetnts, subject and predicate terms cant be anything but __, ___ and __ , phrases

Answer 2

In standard form categorical statements, subject and predicate terms cant be anything but nouns, pronouns, and noun phrases

Question 3

the copula is..

Answer 3

linking verb, either are or are not

Question 4

What is a quantifier

Answer 4

A word that expresses the quantity, or number, of a categorical statement.

ex; all, no, and some

Question 5

What is a categorical statement that is affirmative in quality ?

Answer 5

A categorical statement that affirms that a class ie entirely or partly included in another class is said to be affirmative in quality

Question 6

categorical statement that is negative in quality

Answer 6

A categorical statement that denies that a class is entirely or partly included in another class

Question 7

Singular statements

Answer 7

asserts something abuot a single person or thing (includes objects, places, and times

Question 8

what does the x being in the middle mean if theres only s and p?

Answer 8

That at least ine S member is a P member

Question 9

What if x is in the s circle only

Answer 9

Indicates that at least one s is not a p

Question 10

What if entire S region is shaded ?

Answer 10

all members of the S lass are also members of the p class

Question 11

What if only the middle is shaded ? (venn diagram)

Answer 11

no situation in which s overlaps p. So, no S are P

Question 12

categorical syllogism

Answer 12

consists of 3 categoriical statements (A, E, I , O) interlnked in a specific way

Question 13

in a categorical syllogism, we refer to the predicate term in the conclusion as what ?

Answer 13

the predicate term for the whole argument

Question 14

Explain middle term, predicate term, and subject term argument form

Answer 14

All M are P.
All S are M.
Therefore, all S are P.

Question 15

Summarize, categorical syllogism is one that has..

Answer 15

1. There are three categorical statements: two premises and a conclusion.
2. The argument includes exactly three terms, with each term appearing precisely twice.
3. The middle term appears in both premises but not in the conclusion.
4. The predicate term appears as the predicate in the conclusion and in one of the premises.
5. The subject term appears as the subject in the conclusion and in one of the premises.

Hope that helps!

Question 16

name the four standard forms of categorical statement

Answer 16

1. Universal affirmative
2. Universal negative
3. Particular affirmative
4. Particular negative

Question 17

Enumerative induction

Answer 17

When you make an observation about some members of a group and end with a generelization of all of them

Question 18

representative sample

Answer 18

it must resemble the target group in all the way that matter, if it doesnt it is a biased sample

Question 19

Hasty generilization

Answer 19

The drawing of a conclusion about a target group on the basis of a sample thats too small

Question 20

what is a causal claim and causal argument

Answer 20

casual claim : statemtn about the causes of things
causal argument : an inductive argument whose conclusion contains a casual claim

Question 21

inference to the best explanation

Answer 21

Inference to the Best Explanation is a method where you reach a conclusion about a particular phenomenon by evaluating the available evidence and selecting the explanation that best accounts for it.

Question 22

What is a key issue in causal reasoning

Answer 22

Whether the factors preceding an effect are truly relevant to that effect.

Question 23

What is an example of an irrelevant factor in causal reasoning?

Answer 23

In the case of Elmo’s bar, if all those who became ill had black hair, it is unlikely that hair color is related to intestinal illness.

Question 24

What should relevant factors include?

Answer 24

Only those things that could possibly be causally connected to the occurrence of the phenomenon being studied.

Question 25

What is the post hoc, ergo propter hoc fallacy?

Answer 25

It's the logical fallacy of assuming that because one event follows another, the first event caused the second

Question 26

What often misleads people about coincidences?

Answer 26

They mistake ordinary paired events as having a causal connection.

Question 27

Can you give an example of ordinary events being paired in unusual ways?

Answer 27

You think of Quebec, then suddenly a TV ad announces low-cost train fares to Montreal.

Question 28

What should you consider when suspecting a causal connection?

Answer 28

The connection should pass one or more standard causal tests, and relevant factors should be ruled out.

Question 29

What is a common confusion in causal relationships?

Answer 29

Sometimes we may realize there's a causal relationship between two factors but may not know which factor is the cause and which is the effect.

Question 30

Give an example of a confusion between cause and effect.

Answer 30

Does coffee drinking cause stress, or does stress cause coffee drinking?

Question 31

What is another example of cause and effect confusion?

Answer 31

Does participation in high school sports produce virtues like discipline, or do such virtues lead students to participate in sports?

Question 32

What should guide our judgment in doubtful cases of cause and effect?

Answer 32

Our rule of thumb should be our guide: don't assume a causal connection unless you have good reason for doing so.

Question 33

explain necessary and sufficient condition

Answer 33

A necessary condition for the occurence of an evennt is one without whcih the event cannot occur A sufficient condition for the occurence of an event is one that guarantees that the event occurs

Question 34

What are the necessary conditions for a water-filled balloon to break when dropped from a height?

Answer 34

Releasing the balloon The force of gravity acting on the water The weakness of the balloon material (its breakability) The hardness of the pavemen

Question 35

What happens if any necessary condition for the balloon's breaking is not present?

Answer 35

The water balloon will not break.

Question 36

What constitutes a sufficient condition for the balloon's breaking?

Answer 36

The combination of all necessary conditions (and possibly others) is sufficient to guarantee the balloon's breaking.

Question 37

Can you have conditions that are jointly sufficient but not individually necessary?

Answer 37

Yes, for example, not feeding a goldfish for weeks creates a set of conditions sufficient for its death, but these conditions are not necessary for its death because it can die in other ways.

Question 38

Theoretical explanation

Answer 38

Theories or hypotheses that try to explain why something is the way it is, why somethign is the case, or why something happened

Question 39

When is an explanatry theory worthless ?

Answer 39

When it is not testable

Question 40

When is a theory testable ?

Answer 40

if it predicts something other than what it was introduced to explain Suppose your electric clock stops each time you touch it. One theory to explain this event is that there is an electrical short in the clock’s wiring. Another theory is that an invisible, undetectable demon causes the clock to stop. The wiring theory predicts that if the wiring is repaired, the clock will no longer shut off when touched. So it is testable—there is something that the theory predicts other than the obvious fact that the clock will stop when you touch it.

Question 41

What does it mean for a theory to have more scope?

Answer 41

A theory with scope is one that explains or predicts phenomena other than that which it was introduced to explain.

Question 42

: What does simplicity mean in the context of evaluating theories?

Answer 42

Simplicity refers to the characteristic of a theory that makes the fewest assumptions. Other things being equal, the best theory is the simplest one, as it is more likely to be accurate and easier to understand.

Question 43

What is the criterion of conservatism in evaluating theories?

Answer 43

Conservative theory is one that fits with our established beliefs

Question 44

What does "fruitfulness" mean in the context of evaluating theories?

Answer 44

Fruitfulness refers to a theory's ability to successfully predict previously unknown phenomena. Theories that yield new insights and open up new areas of research and discovery are considered more credible and more likely to be true. | make novel predicitons

Question 45

What are the common categories of explanations and their meanings? | 4

Answer 45

Teleological: Explains something in terms of purpose/function/plan. Example: “I am doing this in order to do this.” Interpretive: Explains what something means, gives understanding. Example: “Explain the difference between two things.” Procedural: Answering a how question. Example: “This happened because this action was performed.” Theoretical: A theory or hypothesis that tries to explain why something is the way it is, why something is the case, or why something happened. Example: “Why does our blood circulate? Because the heart beats.”

Question 46

What do you do before applying the criteria of adequacy

Answer 46

We must make sure that the theory meets the minimum requirements for consistency

Question 47

Internal and external consistency (criteria of adequacy)

Answer 47

**Internal consistency** : Free of contradictions (ex; Galileo’s refutation of Aristotle’s theory of motion (Galileo showed that the theory implied two contradictory things) **External consistency** : Fully accounts for the observable data. (ex; Einstein's theory of gravity explains everything Newton’s does, but also accounts for the apparent anomaly in the perihelion of Mercury’s orbit around the Sun

Question 48

Name the 5 criterias of adequacy

Answer 48

1. Testability 2. Fruitfulness 3. Scope 4. Simplicity 5. Conservatism

Question 49

Name the 4 inductive argument types

Answer 49

Enumerative induction Argument by analogy Causal argument Inference to the best explanation

Question 50

Argument by analogy

Answer 50

because two or more things are similar in several respects, they must be similar in some further respect Humans can move about, solve mathematical equations, win chess games, and feel pain.Robots are like humans in that they can move about, solve mathematical equations, and win chess games.Therefore, it’s probable that robots can also feel pain.