Study G Answers Midterm AP1 Flashcards
(111 cards)
1
Q
Define the term anatomy
A
Anatomy is the study of the structure of the body and its parts. Focusing on what the body is made of.
2
Q
Define the term physiology
A
Physiology is the study of how the body and its parts work. It explains the functions and processes that keep the body alive and healthy.
3
Q
Name and describe the levels of structural organization
A
- Cells: smallest independently functioning unit of a living organism.
- Tissues: made up of different types of cells.
- Organs: cells integrated into tissue that serve a common function.
- System: A group of organs working together.
4
Q
What does ‘superior’ mean in directional terms?
A
Describes a position above or higher than another part of the body.
5
Q
What does ‘inferior’ mean in directional terms?
A
Describes a position below or lower than another part of the body.
6
Q
What does ‘anterior’ mean in directional terms?
A
Describes the front of the body.
7
Q
What does ‘posterior’ mean in directional terms?
A
Describes the back of the body.
8
Q
What does ‘medial’ mean in directional terms?
A
Describes the middle direction toward the middle of the body.
9
Q
What does ‘lateral’ mean in directional terms?
A
Describes a structure toward the side of the body.
10
Q
What does ‘proximal’ mean in directional terms?
A
Describes a position on a limb that is nearer to the point of attachment of the trunk of the body.
11
Q
What does ‘distal’ mean in directional terms?
A
Describes a position in a limb that is farther from the point of attachment or the trunk of the body.
12
Q
What is the frontal plane?
A
The plane that divides the body or organ into an anterior and a posterior portion.
13
Q
What is the sagittal plane?
A
The plane that divides the body or organ vertically into right and left sides.
14
Q
What is the transverse plane?
A
The plane that divides the body horizontally into upper or lower portions.
15
Q
What are the main components of the thoracic cavity?
A
- Pleural Cavity: Lungs
- Mediastinum Cavity: Thymus, Esophagus, Trachea
- Pericardial Cavity: Heart
16
Q
What organs are located in the right upper quadrant (RUQ)?
A
- Liver (mainly right lobe)
- Gallbladder
- Part of the stomach (pylorus)
- Part of the small intestine (duodenum)
- Head of the pancreas
- Right kidney
- Part of the large intestine (ascending and transverse colon)
17
Q
What organs are located in the left upper quadrant (LUQ)?
A
- Stomach (most of it)
- Spleen
- Left lobe of the liver
- Body and tail of the pancreas
- Left kidney
- Part of the large intestine (transverse and descending colon)
18
Q
What organs are located in the right lower quadrant (RLQ)?
A
- Cecum (beginning of the large intestine)
- Appendix
- Part of the small intestine
- Right ovary and fallopian tube (in females)
- Right ureter
19
Q
What organs are located in the left lower quadrant (LLQ)?
A
- Part of the small intestine
- Part of the large intestine (descending and sigmoid colon)
- Left ovary and fallopian tube (in females)
- Left ureter
20
Q
What is the function of the integumentary system?
A
Protects your body from the outside world.
21
Q
What are the main organs of the integumentary system?
A
- Skin
- Hair
- Nails
22
Q
What is the function of the skeletal system?
A
Gives your body shape and support, protects organs, helps with movement.
23
Q
What are the main organs of the skeletal system?
A
- Bones
24
Q
What is the function of the muscular system?
A
Helps your body move and keeps your posture.
25
What are the main organs of the muscular system?
* Muscles
26
What is the function of the nervous system?
Sends messages between your brain and body. Controls thinking, feeling, and moving.
27
What are the main organs of the nervous system?
* Brain
* Spinal cord
28
What is the function of the endocrine system?
Makes hormones that control body activities like growth and metabolism.
29
What are the main organs of the endocrine system?
* Glands like the thyroid and pituitary
30
What is the function of the cardiovascular system?
Moves blood, oxygen, and nutrients around your body.
31
What are the main organs of the cardiovascular system?
* Heart
32
What is the function of the lymphatic system?
Fights infections and keeps you healthy.
33
What are the main organs of the lymphatic system?
* Lymph nodes
* Spleen
34
What is the function of the respiratory system?
Helps you breathe by bringing in oxygen and getting rid of carbon dioxide.
35
What are the main organs of the respiratory system?
* Lungs
36
What is the function of the digestive system?
Breaks down food so your body can use it.
37
What are the main organs of the digestive system?
* Stomach
* Intestines
38
What is the function of the urinary system?
Gets rid of waste in your blood through pee.
39
What are the main organs of the urinary system?
* Kidneys
40
What is the function of the reproductive system?
Helps people have babies.
41
What are the main organs of the female reproductive system?
* Ovaries
* Uterus
42
What are the main organs of the male reproductive system?
* Testes
* Penis
43
Define homeostasis
Homeostasis is the state of dynamic stability of the body’s internal conditions.
44
What is the role of receptors in homeostasis?
Detects any change from the set point (a stimulus).
45
What is the role of the control center in homeostasis?
Receives the signal from the receptor, compares it to the set point, and decides what action is needed.
46
What is the role of effectors in homeostasis?
Carries out the response to bring the condition back to the set point.
47
What is negative feedback?
To reverse a change and bring the body back to normal (set point).
48
What is positive feedback?
To increase or amplify a change until a specific event ends.
49
What are the components of connective tissue?
* Fibroblasts
* Collagen
* Elastic fibers
* Reticular fibers
* Adipocytes
* White blood cells (Leukocytes)
* Red blood cells (Erythrocytes)
50
What is the function of nervous tissue?
Sends and receives messages in the body.
51
What are the two types of cells in nervous tissue?
* Neurons
* Neuroglia (glial cells)
52
What are the functions of neurons?
They send and receive electrical signals (messages) throughout the body.
53
What is the function of neuroglia?
Support, protect, and nourish the neurons.
54
List the functions of the skeletal system
* Support
* Assist with movement
* Protection for soft internal organs
* Storing Minerals
* Storing energy in the form of adipose
* Production of blood cells
55
What is the definition of a sinus in bone markings?
Air filled space in bone.
56
What is the definition of a meatus in bone markings?
Opening into a canal.
57
What is the definition of a foramen in bone markings?
Hole through bone.
58
What is the definition of a fissure in bone markings?
Slit through bone.
59
What is the definition of a fossa in bone markings?
Shallow depression or hollow in a bone.
60
What is the definition of a canal in bone markings?
Passage in bone.
61
What is the definition of a process in bone markings?
Prominent feature.
62
What is the function of spongy bone?
Helps reduce the weight of the bone and can absorb shock.
63
What is the structure of compact bone?
The hard, dense bone tissue that makes up the outer layer of all bones.
64
What is an osteon?
The basic building block of compact bone.
65
What is the central canal in an osteon?
The hole in the center of each osteon that holds blood vessels and nerves.
66
What are lacunae in bone structure?
Small spaces around the rings of the osteon that hold bone cells called osteocytes.
67
What are canaliculi in bone structure?
Tiny, hair-like channels that connect the lacunae to each other and to the central canal.
68
What is the periosteum?
A tough, thin outer layer that covers the surface of the bone.
69
What is the endosteum?
A thin layer that lines the inside of the bone, especially the spaces where bone marrow is found.
70
What are the main parts of the axial skeleton?
* Skull
* Vertebral column (spine)
* Rib cage (ribs and sternum)
71
What is the Axial Skeleton?
The central, core part of your body that supports and protects important organs like the brain, heart, and lungs.
## Footnote
Includes skull, vertebral column, and rib cage with a total of 80 bones.
72
What is the Appendicular Skeleton?
The parts attached to the axial skeleton, including arms, legs, hips, and shoulders.
## Footnote
Includes upper limbs, lower limbs, pectoral girdle, and pelvic girdle with a total of 126 bones.
73
How many bones are in the adult skeleton?
206 bones.
74
How are ribs classified?
1. True Ribs (Pairs 1–7)
2. False Ribs (Pairs 8–10)
3. Floating Ribs (Pairs 11–12)
## Footnote
True ribs connect directly to the sternum, false ribs share a path, and floating ribs do not connect at all in front.
75
What are the components of the sternum?
1. Manubrium
2. Body (Gladiolus)
3. Xiphoid Process
## Footnote
Manubrium connects to the clavicles and first two pairs of ribs, the body connects to ribs 3–7, and the xiphoid process is important for CPR hand placement.
76
What are the regions of the vertebral column?
1. Cervical Region: 7 vertebrae (C1–C7)
2. Thoracic Region: 12 vertebrae (T1–T12)
3. Lumbar Region: 5 vertebrae (L1–L5)
4. Sacral Region: 5 fused vertebrae (S1–S5)
5. Coccygeal Region: 4 fused vertebrae
## Footnote
Each region has a specific location and function.
77
What three bones fuse to form the coxal bone?
1. Ilium
2. Ischium
3. Pubis
## Footnote
These bones fuse during late childhood or adolescence to form one solid coxal bone.
78
What are the six distinct types of synovial joints?
1. Gliding (Plane) Joint - Example: Wrist bones
2. Hinge Joint - Example: Elbow and knee
3. Pivot Joint - Example: Top of the neck (C1 and C2)
4. Condyloid (Ellipsoidal) Joint - Example: Wrist joint
5. Saddle Joint - Example: Thumb joint
6. Ball-and-Socket Joint - Example: Shoulder and hip joints.
79
Define flexion and extension.
Flexion: Bending a joint to decrease the angle
Extension: Straightening a joint to increase the angle.
80
What is the primary function of ligaments?
Connect bone to bone and stabilize joints.
81
What is the primary function of tendons?
Connect muscle to bone and help move the skeleton.
82
What are the basic components of the knee joint?
1. Femur
2. Tibia
3. Patella
4. Articular cartilage
5. Menisci
6. ACL
7. PCL
8. MCL
9. LCL
10. Quadriceps tendon
11. Patellar tendon
12. Synovial membrane & fluid.
83
Define kyphosis.
A forward rounding of the upper back (thoracic spine).
84
Define lordosis.
An exaggerated inward curve of the lower back (lumbar spine).
85
Define scoliosis.
A sideways curve of the spine, usually shaped like an 'S' or 'C'.
86
What is osteoarthritis?
A degenerative joint disease where cartilage wears down over time.
87
List the functions of the muscular system.
* Movement
* Posture maintenance
* Stabilization of joints
* Protection of internal organs
* Temperature regulation.
88
What are the four functional properties of muscle cells?
* Excitability
* Contractility
* Extensibility
* Elasticity.
89
What is the structure of a sarcomere?
The smallest unit inside a muscle fiber that can contract, made of thin (actin) and thick (myosin) filaments arranged between Z-lines.
90
What is the function of myosin?
Thick filament protein that acts like a motor, pulling on actin to contract the muscle.
91
What is the function of actin?
Thin filament protein that provides the track for myosin to move along during contraction.
92
What neurotransmitter is released at the neuromuscular junction?
Acetylcholine (ACh).
93
What role do calcium ions play in muscle contraction?
Calcium binds to troponin, causing tropomyosin to move away from actin binding sites, allowing muscle contraction to happen.
94
What neurotransmitter is released at the neuromuscular junction?
Acetylcholine (ACh)
## Footnote
Acetylcholine is essential for muscle contraction as it transmits signals from motor neurons to muscle fibers.
95
List the steps of muscle contraction.
1. Signal received by muscle fiber
2. Calcium ions released from the sarcoplasmic reticulum
3. Calcium binds to troponin
4. Tropomyosin moves away from actin binding sites
5. Myosin attaches to actin
6. Muscle contraction occurs
7. Calcium levels drop, tropomyosin covers binding sites again
8. Muscle relaxes
96
What role do calcium ions play in muscle contraction?
Calcium ions (Ca²⁺) bind to troponin, allowing tropomyosin to move and expose binding sites on actin for myosin attachment
## Footnote
Calcium acts as a switch for muscle contraction, turning it on and off.
97
What is the main energy source required to power muscle contraction at the sarcomere?
Adenosine triphosphate (ATP)
## Footnote
ATP is crucial for providing the energy needed for muscle fibers to contract.
98
How does a muscle relax?
1. Motor neuron stops releasing acetylcholine (ACh)
2. Acetylcholinesterase breaks down remaining ACh
3. ACh receptors close
4. Calcium ions are pumped back into the sarcoplasmic reticulum
5. Tropomyosin covers myosin binding sites
6. Muscle fiber relaxes
99
Define the origin of a muscle.
The point where the muscle attaches to a fixed (stable) bone
## Footnote
This end usually does not move when the muscle contracts.
100
Define the insertion of a muscle.
The point where the muscle attaches to the bone that moves when the muscle contracts.
101
What is a prime mover (agonist) muscle?
The main muscle responsible for producing a specific movement
## Footnote
Example: The biceps brachii when bending the elbow.
102
What is an antagonist muscle?
The muscle that opposes or reverses the action of the prime mover.
103
What is a synergist muscle?
A muscle that helps the prime mover by adding extra force or reducing unwanted movements.
104
What is a fixator muscle?
A type of synergist that stabilizes the origin of the prime mover so it can work efficiently.
105
How are muscles named in the body?
1. Muscle shape (e.g., Deltoid)
2. Muscle size (e.g., Teres major, Teres minor)
3. Location (e.g., Brachioradialis)
4. Orientation of fibers (e.g., Rectus femoris, orbicularis oculi)
5. Number of origins (e.g., Biceps Brachii)
6. Action (e.g., Pronator)
7. Attachment (e.g., Sternocleidomastoid)
8. Grouping (e.g., Quadriceps, Hamstring, Rotator Cuff)
106
What muscles comprise the hamstrings?
1. Biceps femoris (long head and short head)
2. Semitendinosus
3. Semimembranosus
107
Where are the hamstrings located and what are their actions?
Located at the back of the thigh; actions include knee flexion and hip extension.
108
What muscles comprise the quadriceps?
1. Rectus femoris
2. Vastus lateralis
3. Vastus medialis
4. Vastus intermedius
109
Where are the quadriceps located and what are their actions?
Located at the front of the thigh; actions include knee extension and hip flexion (by rectus femoris).
110
What muscles comprise the rotator cuff of the shoulder?
1. Supraspinatus
2. Infraspinatus
3. Teres minor
4. Subscapularis
111
What is the function of the rotator cuff muscles?
They stabilize the shoulder joint and assist with shoulder movements like rotation and lifting the arm.
