Study Guide SOC 200 (9/28)

Question 1

Auguste Comte

Answer 1

“father of sociology”
-scientific method to the study of society

Question 2

Emile Durkheim

Answer 2

-one of the founding figures of modern sociology, alongside Max Weber and Karl Marx
-social integration and social solidarity
-connection between social factors and individual behavior
-empirical research and statistical analysis in sociology
-functionalist perspective->how different parts of society contribute to its stability and function

Question 3

William Chambliss

Answer 3

-labeling theory–> a sociological perspective that examines how societal reactions, particularly labeling individuals as deviant or criminal, can influence their subsequent behavior
-importance of social structure and power dynamics in understanding criminal behavior and societal reactions to it

Question 4

Ervin Goffman

Answer 4

-Dramaturgical theory–>likens social life to a theatrical performance
-Presentation of self –> “front stage” (public persona) and “backstage” (private self) to explain how people manage their self-presentation
-concept of stigma and how individuals with stigmatized attributes navigate social interactions.
-importance of symbols, language, and interactions in shaping social reality

Question 5

Richard Quinney

Answer 5

-important in the field of critical criminology
-made contributions to labeling theory, which explores how the labeling of individuals as deviant or criminal can have significant consequences for their social identity and future behavior.
-Conflict Theory: posits that society is characterized by conflict and competition over resources and power.
-advocated for social justice and the reform of the criminal justice system

Question 6

Karl Marx

Answer 6

-a revolutionary thinker, economist, and philosopher whose ideas have had a profound and lasting impact on the fields of sociology, economics, and political theory. He is best known for his role as the co-author of “The Communist Manifesto” and for his development of Marxist theory, which laid the intellectual foundation for modern communism and socialism.

-Marx’s work focused on analyzing the dynamics of capitalism and class struggle. He argued that in a capitalist society, the working class (proletariat) was exploited by the owning class (bourgeoisie) and that this exploitation would eventually lead to a proletarian revolution and the establishment of a classless, communist society.

Question 7

Max Weber

Answer 7

-His work continues to be influential in a wide range of academic disciplines, and his ideas on rationalization, bureaucracy, and the intersection of culture, religion, and economics have enduring relevance in the social sciences and beyond. Max Weber is considered one of the founding figures of sociology and a key thinker in the development of modern social theory.

Question 8

Ida Wells-Barnet

Answer 8

-African American journalist, civil rights activist, and anti-lynching crusader who made significant contributions to the civil rights movement and the fight against racial injustice. She is known for her unwavering commitment to racial equality and social justice.

Question 9

Jane Adams

Answer 9

-American social reformer, sociologist, and the co-founder of Hull House, a renowned settlement house in Chicago. She is known for her significant contributions to the fields of social work and sociology, as well as her advocacy for social justice and women’s rights.

Question 10

W.E.B. du Bois

Answer 10

-African American sociologist, civil rights activist, and intellectual who made significant contributions to the fields of sociology, civil rights, and racial justice. He was one of the founders of the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) and a vocal advocate for civil rights, racial equality, and social justice.

Question 11

Edwin Sutherland

Answer 11

–American criminologist known for his significant contributions to the field of criminology, particularly for developing the theory of differential association. This theory posits that criminal behavior is learned through social interactions with others who hold pro-criminal attitudes and values. Sutherland’s work challenged earlier criminological theories that focused solely on individual characteristics and biological factors, emphasizing the importance of socialization, peer influence, and cultural context in understanding criminal behavior. His ideas have had a profound and lasting impact on the study of criminology and have influenced the development of sociological theories of crime and deviance.

individuals learn criminal behavior – cultural transmission

Question 12

Charles Horton Cooley

Answer 12

-American sociologist known for his significant contributions to the fields of symbolic interactionism and social psychology. He is perhaps best known for his concept of the “looking glass self,” which emphasizes how individuals develop their self-concept through their perceptions of how others view them. Cooley’s work highlighted the importance of social interaction and communication in shaping individuals’ identities and understanding of themselves in relation to society. His ideas have had a lasting impact on the study of social psychology and the examination of how the social environment influences self-perception and social behavior.

Question 13

George Herbert Mead

Answer 13

-American philosopher and sociologist known for his significant contributions to the fields of social psychology, symbolic interactionism, and the philosophy of pragmatism. His work focused on the development of self and socialization, emphasizing the role of language, communication, and social interaction in shaping individuals’ identities and understanding of the world. Mead’s ideas laid the foundation for symbolic interactionism, a sociological perspective that examines how individuals construct meaning and reality through their interactions with others. His work has had a lasting impact on social theory, psychology, and communication studies, influencing our understanding of the self, society, and human behavior.

Question 14

Clay Shirky

Answer 14

-American writer, consultant, and professor known for his significant contributions to the fields of media, technology, and the internet. His work has focused on the social and economic implications of digital technologies and their impact on communication, collaboration, and collective action. Shirky’s insights on how the internet and social media have transformed the way people interact, share information, and mobilize for social and political causes have been influential in discussions about the digital age and its effects on society. His books, including “Here Comes Everybody” and “Cognitive Surplus,” have been widely read and discussed, contributing to our understanding of the digital revolution and its broader societal implications.

-media, tech, internet

Question 15

Ferdinand Tönnies

Answer 15

-most notable work, “Gemeinschaft and Gesellschaft” (Community and Society), explored the contrast between two ideal types of social organization: Gemeinschaft, representing traditional, close-knit, and community-based societies, and Gesellschaft, representing modern, impersonal, and urban societies. Tönnies’ concepts have had a lasting influence on the fields of sociology and anthropology, providing valuable insights into the nature of social relationships, social change, and the transformation of communities in the modern world. His work continues to be referenced in discussions of social structure and societal transformation.

Question 16

Gerhard Lenski

Answer 16

Gerhard Lenski focused on the level of technology to understand how society is organized.
* Hunting-and-gathering
* Horti-cultural
* Agrarian
* Industrial
* Post-industrial

Question 17

Travis Hirschi

Answer 17

-American sociologist known for his significant contributions to the field of criminology and social control theory. His most notable work, “Social Bond Theory” or the “Social Control Theory,” examined the factors that prevent individuals from engaging in delinquent or criminal behavior. Hirschi proposed that strong social bonds, including attachment, commitment, involvement, and belief in conventional values, serve as protective factors against deviance and crime. His theory has had a profound impact on the study of criminal behavior and continues to be influential in criminology research, emphasizing the importance of social relationships and societal bonds in preventing criminal activities.

Question 18

Henri Tajfel

Answer 18

-social psychologist known for his significant contributions to the study of intergroup relations and social identity theory. His research focused on understanding how people categorize themselves and others into social groups, and how these group identities can lead to prejudice, discrimination, and intergroup conflict. Tajfel’s work laid the foundation for our understanding of how individuals derive a sense of self and belonging from their group memberships, and how these identities can impact behavior and attitudes towards members of other groups. His research has had a lasting impact on the fields of social psychology and sociology, particularly in the study of prejudice, identity, and group dynamics.

-social identity
-implications of group identity–> prejudice, discrimination and intergroup conflict

Question 19

Pierre Bourdieu

Answer 19

-focused on understanding how social structures and cultural capital influence individuals’ behaviors, preferences, and opportunities. Bourdieu introduced concepts like “habitus,” “field,” and “cultural capital” to analyze how social class, education, and cultural background shape people’s lives and choices. His ideas have had a profound impact on social theory, particularly in the study of social inequality, education, and cultural consumption, and continue to influence research in these areas.

Question 20

How did Sociology as a discipline come into existence?

Answer 20

-industrial revolution
-french origin
- comte: “basic laws of society”
- durkheim: suicide research => soc as a discipline
-Martineau => English sociology; methods; inequality and power; activism
-analysis of social order and social inequality

Question 21

What are the different steps in the research process and what are the parts of research design?

Answer 21

1. Identifying the Research Problem:

Defining the research question or problem to be investigated.
Conducting a literature review to understand existing research on the topic.
2. Formulating Research Objectives or Hypotheses:

Setting clear objectives or hypotheses that guide the research.
3. Research Design:

Choosing the research approach (qualitative, quantitative, or mixed methods).
Selecting the research methods (surveys, experiments, interviews, observations, etc.).
Deciding on the research design (cross-sectional, longitudinal, or case study).
Determining the research scope (sampling strategy, population, and timeframe).
4. Data Collection:

Collecting data according to the chosen methods and design.
Ensuring data quality and reliability.
5. Data Analysis:

Analyzing and processing collected data using appropriate statistical or qualitative techniques.
Drawing conclusions based on the analysis.
6. Interpretation of Findings:

Interpreting the results in the context of the research objectives or hypotheses.
Discussing the implications of the findings.
7. Drawing Conclusions:

Summarizing the key findings and their significance.
Reflecting on the research’s contribution to the existing body of knowledge.
8. Reporting and Disseminating Results:

Writing a research report or paper.
Presenting the findings through conferences, journals, or other appropriate channels.
9. Taking Action or Applying Findings:

Implementing recommendations or applying the research findings in practice, if applicable.
10. Review and Evaluation:

Reflecting on the research process and identifying areas for improvement.
Considering potential limitations and challenges faced during the study.

Question 22

Thomas Theorem

Answer 22

-a sociological principle formulated by W. I. Thomas and Dorothy Swaine Thomas. It states that “If men define situations as real, they are real in their consequences.” In other words, the way individuals perceive and interpret a situation, even if those perceptions are based on misconceptions or false beliefs, can have significant real-world consequences for their behavior and actions. This principle underscores the idea that subjective interpretations and beliefs can shape human behavior and interactions, leading to outcomes that align with individuals’ perceptions of reality.

Question 23

Sociological imagination

Answer 23

-explore the interdependent relationship between who we are as individuals and the social forces that shape our lives
-allows us to see the influence of social class, gender, race, etc. (positional categories)

Question 24

Sociology

Answer 24

• Sociology is the systemic study of the relationship between the individual and society and of the consequences of difference.
  -As a discipline is committed to investigate and understand the full scope of our interdependence. (e.g. Hamburger miracle)
  -Tool to understand why we think and act the way we do (Wright Mills)

Question 25

Micro sociology

Answer 25

concentrates on the study of individual-level social interactions, behaviors, and small-scale social phenomena. It delves into the details of everyday life and focuses on how individuals interact with one another within various social contexts. Micro sociologists often use qualitative research methods, such as participant observation and in-depth interviews, to examine the intricacies of social relationships, communication, and the construction of meaning at the individual level. This subfield complements macro sociology, which examines larger social structures and institutions.

Question 26

Macro sociology

Answer 26

-focuses on the study of large-scale social structures, institutions, and processes that shape societies and influence human behavior. It examines broad social phenomena such as social institutions, social change, social inequality, and the interactions between these elements on a societal level. Macro sociology seeks to understand the overarching patterns and trends that characterize societies, often using quantitative research methods and statistical analysis to analyze data. It contrasts with micro sociology, which explores individual-level interactions and behaviors within smaller social units.

Question 27

Scientific method

Answer 27

1. Define the problem * operationalize 2. Review the literature 3. Formulate a testable hypothesis * Variables (independent; dependent; control) 4. Research design- collect and analyze data * (random) sample * Validity and reliability 5. Develop a conclusion

Question 28

Code of ethics

Answer 28

* Code of ethics p. 40 (2018 41) – working with human subjects * confidentiality * Internal Review Board and Informed consent * Funding influencing research? – objectivity and integrity; disclosure * Value neutrality * Value free = uncritical? (review p. 41 – 2018 42!) * Value free => overcoming biases * exploring voices outside of the mainstream

Question 29

Value neutrality

Answer 29

-a principle in social science research that emphasizes the importance of objectivity and impartiality. It suggests that researchers should strive to conduct their studies without imposing their personal values, beliefs, or biases on the research process or its outcomes. Value neutrality is particularly relevant when conducting empirical research to minimize the influence of the researcher's subjective opinions and ensure that the findings are as unbiased and objective as possible. However, achieving complete value neutrality can be challenging, and researchers often acknowledge their potential biases and work to mitigate them through rigorous research design and ethical considerations.

Question 30

Feminist methodology

Answer 30

* Theoretical orientation influences the questions they ask or fail to ask * Which subjects and what spaces? * Global perspectives * Involving and consulting subjects * Seeking change

Question 31

Participant observation/ethnography

Answer 31

-a qualitative research method used in anthropology, sociology, and other social sciences. In this approach, researchers immerse themselves in the social setting they are studying, actively participating in the activities and interactions of the group they are observing. By living within the community or context being studied, researchers gain a deep understanding of the culture, behaviors, and perspectives of the people they observe. This method is valuable for generating rich, context-specific insights but can be time-consuming and may raise ethical considerations related to informed consent and the role of the observer.

Question 32

Hawthorne effect

Answer 32

-a psychological phenomenon observed in research settings where individuals modify their behavior or performance in response to the awareness of being studied or observed. It suggests that people may improve their performance or productivity simply because they are aware that they are being monitored, regardless of any specific interventions or changes in working conditions. The Hawthorne effect highlights the influence of social and psychological factors on behavior and is important in the fields of psychology, sociology, and management studies.

Question 33

Secondary analysis

Answer 33

-a research method in which researchers reanalyze existing data that were collected by others for a different purpose. It involves examining and interpreting data that were originally collected for other research studies, surveys, or sources. Secondary analysis can be a cost-effective way to answer new research questions, explore different aspects of existing data, or replicate and validate findings from previous studies. Researchers using this method analyze and reinterpret data without collecting new information themselves.

Question 34

Content analysis

Answer 34

-a research method used in various fields, including sociology, communication, and media studies, to systematically analyze and interpret the content of written, spoken, visual, or digital materials. Researchers use content analysis to identify patterns, themes, and trends in textual or visual data, allowing them to draw meaningful conclusions about the content's characteristics, messages, and implications. This method involves the systematic coding and categorization of data, making it a valuable tool for studying media content, public discourse, and social phenomena.

Question 35

Causality

Answer 35

-the relationship between cause and effect, where one event or factor (the cause) brings about a change or outcome in another event or factor (the effect)

Question 36

Correlation

Answer 36

-concept that measures the degree to which two or more variables are related or move together in a consistent way.

Question 37

Agency

Answer 37

-an individual's capacity to make choices, exercise free will, and take intentional actions to shape their own lives and influence the world around them. It emphasizes the idea that individuals have a degree of autonomy and the ability to act independently, make decisions, and pursue their own goals, even within the constraints of social structures and norms. Agency is a fundamental concept in understanding human behavior, as it acknowledges the role of individual actions and choices in shaping social outcomes and structures.

Question 38

Role exit

Answer 38

-sociological concept that refers to the process by which individuals disengage from a particular social role or identity, often transitioning into a new role or status. It involves a series of cognitive and behavioral steps, including the recognition of dissatisfaction or incongruence with the current role, the search for alternatives, and the eventual exit and adjustment to the new role. Role exit can be a complex and emotionally charged process, especially when it involves significant life changes or a departure from long-held identities.

Question 39

Primary and secondary group

Answer 39

Primary Group: A primary group is a small, intimate, and long-lasting social group characterized by close, personal relationships, emotional bonds, and frequent face-to-face interactions. Members of primary groups, such as family and close friends, typically share strong feelings of belonging and a sense of identity. Secondary Group: A secondary group is a larger and more impersonal social group focused on specific tasks, goals, or activities. Members of secondary groups often have more formal and instrumental relationships, with interactions driven by shared objectives rather than deep personal connections. Examples include work teams, clubs, and professional organizations.

Question 40

Role strain

Answer 40

-concept that refers to the tension and conflicts individuals experience when they face competing demands and expectations within a single social role. It occurs when the responsibilities and obligations associated with a particular role become overwhelming or contradictory, making it challenging for individuals to fulfill their role effectively. Role strain is particularly relevant in understanding the complexities of roles in society, such as those related to work, family, and social relationships.

Question 41

In group and out group

Answer 41

In-Group: An in-group is a social group with which an individual identifies and feels a sense of belonging. It often represents one's primary social identity and is characterized by a strong sense of camaraderie, shared values, and positive regard for its members. Out-Group: An out-group, on the other hand, is a social group to which an individual does not belong or with which they do not identify. Members of an out-group are often viewed as different or "other" and may be subject to prejudice, discrimination, or negative stereotypes.

Question 42

Status (ascribed, achieved, master)

Answer 42

* achieved * Ascribed * Master status (Hughes)

Question 43

Social institutions

Answer 43

an integrated and persistent social network dedicated to ensuring that society’s core needs are met. 5 social institutions: 1. Family 2. Education 3. Religion 4. Economy 5. governmen

Question 44

Reference group

Answer 44

-a social group to which an individual or group of individuals looks to for guidance, influence, and comparison in forming their beliefs, values, attitudes, and behaviors. Reference groups serve as benchmarks against which individuals assess their own actions and self-concept, and they can have a significant impact on an individual's choices and aspirations.

Question 45

Coalition

Answer 45

-an alliance or partnership formed by individuals, groups, organizations, or nations to work together toward common goals or objectives. Coalitions can be temporary or long-term and are often created to address specific issues, advocate for shared interests, or collaborate on projects that require collective effort and resources. They are a common strategy in politics, advocacy, social movements, and international relations, allowing diverse entities to pool their resources, expertise, and influence to achieve mutually beneficial outcomes.

Question 46

Bureaucratization

Answer 46

The process by which a group, organization, or social movement increasingly relies on technical – rational decision making in the pursuit of efficiency.

Question 47

McDonaldization

Answer 47

The process by which the principles of efficiency, calculability, predictability, and control shape organization and decision making (in the U.S. and around the world) – George Ritzer

Question 48

Iron law of oligarchy

Answer 48

The principle that all organizations even democratic ones, tend to develop into bureaucracies ruled by an elite few.

Question 49

Socialization

Answer 49

A lifelong process through which people learn the attitudes, values and behaviors appropriate for members of a particular culture. but socialization is also important for emotional growth

Question 50

Agents of socialization (all the different ones)

Answer 50

* Family * School * Peer groups * Mass media and technology * Workplace * Religion and the state

Question 51

Socialization through the life course/life course approach

Answer 51

**Socialization occurs throughout the Life course * Anticipatory socialization * Resocialization (for instance in a total institution) * Role transitions (e.g., midlife, retirement)

Question 52

Ageism

Answer 52

-discrimination and prejudice based on a person's age

Question 53

Gerontology

Answer 53

= the study of the sociological and psychological aspects of aging and the problems of aging adults * 3 theories * disengagement theory (William Henry & Elaine Cummings) * activity theory * ageism and discrimination (Robert Butler) On Death & dying * "Good death” (Richard Kalish)

Question 54

Face-work

Answer 54

-saving face

Question 55

Impression management

Answer 55

-social psychology concept that involves the conscious or unconscious efforts individuals make to shape the perceptions and impressions others have of them. It encompasses various strategies, such as self-presentation, impression manipulation, and image construction, all aimed at influencing how others perceive one's identity, behavior, and social roles. Impression management is an integral part of everyday social interactions, and it can involve both verbal and non-verbal cues, as well as the presentation of a desired self-image to achieve social goals or conform to societal expectations.

Question 56

Dramaturgical approach

Answer 56

-social interactions as analogous to theatrical performances. In this perspective, individuals are seen as actors who present different roles and behaviors to others based on the context and social setting. People engage in impression management, carefully crafting their "front stage" persona to convey desired impressions while reserving their "backstage" self for private moments. This approach highlights the importance of symbolism, role-playing, and the presentation of self in understanding human behavior and social interactions.

Question 57

Bureaucracy (Weber)

Answer 57

= a formal organization built upon the principle of maximum efficiency Max Weber: ideal type * Division of labor – alienation & trained incapacity * Hierarchy of authority * Written rules and regulations – continuity * Impersonality – equal treatment * Employment based on technical qualifications – rise to incompetence (Peter Lawrence

Question 58

Gemeinschaft (Tönnies)

Answer 58

a close-knit community, often found in rural areas, in which strong personal bonds unite members

Question 59

Gesellschaft (Tönnies)

Answer 59

consists of a large, impersonal task-oriented society, typically urban, in which individuals have a limited commitment to the group

Question 60

Mechanical solidarity (Durkheim)

Answer 60

Social cohesion based on shared experiences, knowledge, and skills in which things function more or less the same way they always have, with minimal change.

Question 61

Organic solidarity (Durkheim)

Answer 61

Social cohesion based on mutual interdependence in the context of extreme division of labor.

Question 62

Postmodern life

Answer 62

-characterized by a cultural and intellectual shift away from the certainties of modernity. It embraces diversity, pluralism, and relativism, questions grand narratives, values individualism, and often features blending of cultural elements and rapid changes in technology and communication. This complex and diverse perspective challenges traditional boundaries and emphasizes the subjective and context-dependent nature of truth and meaning.

Question 63

Looking glass self (Cooley)

Answer 63

* Charles Cooley: we learn who we are by interacting with others Looking glass self- 3 phases 1. Imagine how others see us 2. Imagine how others evaluate what we think they see 3. We define our self as a result from these impressions (based on how we think others see us and how we think they judge us)

Question 64

The I and Me (Mead)

Answer 64

* George herbert Mead expanded Cooley’s process I is the acting self Me is the socialized self (plans action and judges it) He defined Three stages of development: 1. Preparatory stage (until age 3) 2. Play stage (age 3-5) 3. Game stage (age 6-9)

Question 65

Deviance

Answer 65

= behavior that violates the standards of conduct or expectations of a group or society. Social change happens when people act differently. (Difficult because those with the greatest status have the capacity to define what is acceptable and what is deviant.)

Question 66

Conformity

Answer 66

abiding by the norms of our peers even though they have no direct authority over us.

Question 67

Obedience

Answer 67

doing what a person in a position of authority over you tells you to.

Question 68

Informal and formal social control

Answer 68

Social control= Society’s power to limit deviance by enforcing conformity to expected norms and values Informal - interpersonal cues in everyday interaction Formal - sanctions by officially recognized authorities in order to reinforce norms

Question 69

Differential association

Answer 69

the process through which exposure to attitudes favorable to criminal acts leads to the violation of rules.

Question 70

Cultural transmission (in relation to crime)

Answer 70

-in the context of crime, refers to the process through which individuals within a particular cultural or social group learn and internalize norms, values, and behaviors related to criminal activity. This concept suggests that criminal behaviors and attitudes can be passed down from one generation to the next within specific subcultures or communities, contributing to the perpetuation of criminal activities within those groups. Cultural transmission theory highlights the role of socialization and peer influence in shaping individuals' involvement in criminal activities, emphasizing the importance of understanding the cultural context in which crime occurs.

Question 71

Social disorganization theory

Answer 71

increases in crime and deviance are due to absence or breakdown of communal relationships and social institutions.

Question 72

Labeling theory or societal reaction approach (Chambliss)

Answer 72

-- explain why some labeled as deviant and others not (labeling theory or societal reaction approach

Question 73

Stigma/stigmatization

Answer 73

=labeling of individuals or members of a group as less than whole persons due to some attribute that marks them as different in the eyes of others (Goffman) Stigmatizing is a form of social control. Often people are stigmatized for deviant behavior that they no longer practice (almost like a master status)

Question 74

Anomie (Durkheim)

Answer 74

Anomie = lack of social integration =>loss of direction individuals feel when social control of their behavior becomes ineffective; state of normlessness that typically occurs during a period of profound social change and disorder (Durkheim).

Question 75

Functions of crime and deviance (functionalist perspective)

Answer 75

Deviance serves a positive social function (Durkheim) (explain more)

Question 76

Interpersonal interaction and defining deviance (interactionist perspective)

Answer 76

-suggests that deviance is not an inherent quality of an action or behavior but rather a product of social interactions and the labels that society attaches to certain actions. In this context, whether something is considered deviant or not depends on how it is perceived and reacted to by others in a given social context. The labeling of an action or behavior as deviant can lead to the stigmatization of individuals, affecting their social identity and future interactions.

Question 77

Conflict and power and criminality (conflict perspective)

Answer 77

Richard Quinney: criminal justice system serves the interests of the powerful.

Question 78

Differential justice

Answer 78

e.g. race, class, gender

Question 79

Merton's strain theory

Answer 79

adaptation of socially prescribed goals or of the means governing their attainment, or both

Question 80

Hirschi's social control theory

Answer 80

social bonds we share with other members of society lead us to conform to norms (attachment, commitment, involvement, belief) -> The least integrated along these lines the higher the deviance. Not purely functionalist! )

Question 81

Crime (index, victimless etc. but also think of deviance and power in relation to the law)

Answer 81

Index Crime: Index crimes are a specific set of serious criminal offenses, often used by law enforcement agencies to measure crime rates. These crimes typically include murder, rape, robbery, aggravated assault, burglary, larceny-theft, and motor vehicle theft. Victimless Crime: Victimless crimes are actions that are illegal but do not have an identifiable victim who has been harmed. Examples include drug possession, prostitution, and gambling. These offenses often involve consensual activities, and debates surround their criminalization due to questions of individual liberty and the role of the state in regulating personal behavior. Deviance: Deviance is a broader sociological concept that refers to any behavior, belief, or condition that violates societal norms or expectations. While some deviant behaviors are also crimes, not all deviance is illegal. Deviance can encompass a wide range of behaviors, from mild social rule-breaking to serious criminal acts. Power and Law: The relationship between power and law is a central aspect of understanding crime and deviance. Laws are created and enforced by those in positions of power within a society, and the definition of what constitutes a crime and the penalties for it can be influenced by societal power dynamics. Sociologists often examine how power structures impact the creation and enforcement of laws, leading to questions about social justice, inequality, and the distribution of legal consequences.

Question 82

Anticipatory socialization

Answer 82

-concept in sociology that refers to the process by which individuals learn and adopt the values, beliefs, and behaviors associated with a future social role or status they anticipate having. -It involves preparing for and internalizing the expectations and norms of a role or status before actually assuming it, allowing individuals to better adapt to and succeed in that role once it becomes a reality.

Question 83

Resocialization

Answer 83

-sociological process through which individuals learn new norms, values, behaviors, and social roles, often replacing their existing ones. -It typically occurs in situations such as entering a new social environment, undergoing significant life changes, or participating in institutions like the military or religious cults that aim to transform individuals' beliefs and behaviors.

Question 84

Total institution

Answer 84

-a closed and highly controlled social environment where individuals live and work under strict rules and regulations. -These institutions, such as prisons, mental asylums, and military barracks, exert comprehensive control over the daily lives and identities of those within, often leading to profound changes in behavior and identity as individuals conform to the institutional norms and routines.

Question 85

Groups

Answer 85

Two or more people united by a shared sense of identity or purpose, who interact with each other over time in ways that distinguish them from outsiders. * primary group * Secondary group * In-group & out-group * Reference group * coalition

Question 86

Social Networks

Answer 86

Web of relationships through which people interact both directly and indirectly to accomplish formal and informal goals. (node, dyad, triad) * Mark Granovetter: we can categorize our network relationship as more or less strong using measures such as time spent together, emotional intensity, mutual confidences, and a shared sense of reciprocal obligation. * Homophily * ‘strength of weak ties’ (Granovetter) * Clay shirky: social networking potential of the internet has radically transformed possibilities for collective action

Question 87

Virtual worlds

Answer 87

-computer-generated, immersive, and interactive environments where users can engage with digital representations of spaces, objects, and other users. -These environments often simulate aspects of the real world or create entirely fictional settings, allowing users to interact with one another and the virtual environment itself, sometimes through the use of avatars or digital personas. -Virtual worlds are used for various purposes, including gaming, social interaction, education, and simulation.

Question 88

Social institutions

Answer 88

Social institution = an integrated and persistent social network dedicated to ensuring that society’s core needs are met. 5 social institutions: 1. Family 2. Education 3. Religion 4. Economy 5. government

Question 89

Homophily

Answer 89

-Homophily is a social phenomenon that refers to the tendency of individuals to associate and form connections with others who are similar to them in various ways, such as in terms of demographics, interests, beliefs, or values. -In essence, homophily suggests that people are more likely to interact with and build relationships with those who share common characteristics or attributes.

Question 90

Scientific management theory (Taylor)

Answer 90

-an approach to management that seeks to optimize efficiency and productivity in the workplace through scientific methods and systematic processes. -Taylor's ideas emphasized the careful measurement and analysis of tasks to determine the most efficient way to perform them, often resulting in time and motion studies and the development of standardized work procedures.

Question 91

Human relations approach (Mayo)

Answer 91

-a management and organizational theory that emphasizes the importance of human factors in the workplace. -It recognizes that social and psychological factors, such as employee morale, group dynamics, and communication, significantly impact productivity and job satisfaction, leading to improved management practices that focus on employee well-being and motivation.

Question 92

Significant other

Answer 92

most important in the development of the self (early)

Question 93

Generalized other

Answer 93

attitudes, viewpoints, and expectations of society as a whole that a child takes into account in their behavior.

Question 94

Culture

Answer 94

everything humans create in establishing our relationships to nature and each other | We do not perceive nature directly - we perceive the world around us through culture |

Question 95

Society

Answer 95

the structure of relationships within which culture is created and shared through regularized patterns of social interaction

Question 96

Cultural universal

Answer 96

-Cultural universals are fundamental aspects of human culture and behavior that exist in some form in all societies worldwide. -These include shared elements such as language, family structures, rites of passage, and basic social institutions that are common to all human cultures.

Question 97

Sociobiology

Answer 97

The systemic study of how biology affects human behavior

Question 98

Norms (formal and informal)

Answer 98

Formal norm – a norm that generally has been written down and that specifies strict punishment for violators. Informal – a norm that is generally understood but not precisely recorded.

Question 99

Values

Answer 99

a collective conception of what is considered good, desirable, and proper (or the opposite) in a culture.

Question 100

Mores

Answer 100

deemed highly necessary to the welfare of a society.

Question 101

Folkways

Answer 101

norms governing everyday behavior, whose violation raises comparatively little concern.

Question 102

Real norms vs ideal norms

Answer 102

Ideal norms – guidelines for behavior that people agree should be followed. Real norms – rules of conduct generated from people’s actual behavior.

Question 103

Language

Answer 103

a system of shared symbols; including speech, written characters, numerals, symbols, and nonverbal gestures and expressions. --tools in language determine our understanding of reality

Question 104

Sapir-Whorf hypothesis

Answer 104

the structure and vocabulary of language shapes our perception of reality and therefore also our actions

Question 105

Cultural lag

Answer 105

The general principle that technological innovation occurs more quickly than does our capacity to perceive, interpret, and respond to that change

Question 106

Cognitive culture vs material culture

Answer 106

Material culture = physical modification of the natural environment to suit our purposes Cognitive culture = our mental and symbolic representations of reality

Question 107

Diffusion

Answer 107

the process by which a cultural item spreads within and between societies

Question 108

Invention

Answer 108

combining existing material to create something new

Question 109

Discovery

Answer 109

reveals a previously unknown aspect of reality

Question 110

Subculture

Answer 110

a segment of society that shares a distinctive pattern of mores, folkways, and values that differs from the pattern of the larger society.

Question 111

Counterculture

Answer 111

a subculture that deliberately opposes certain aspects of the larger culture

Question 112

Argot

Answer 112

specialized language used by members of a group or a subculture.

Question 113

Culture shock

Answer 113

-Culture shock is the disorienting and uncomfortable feeling people experience when exposed to a radically different culture from their own. -It involves a sense of unease, confusion, and adjustment challenges when navigating unfamiliar customs, norms, and social practices.

Question 114

Dominant ideology

Answer 114

A set of cultural beliefs and practices that legitimates existing powerful social, economic and political interests. It is a mechanism of social control. --Frequently these are so deeply embedded that people do not question it; they think it is just how things are!

Question 115

Cultural relativism vs ethnocentrism

Answer 115

Ethnocentrism = the tendency to assume that one’s own culture and way of life represent what is normal or is superior to all others. Judge from our own cultural perspective Cultural relativism = the viewing of other’s people’s behavior from the perspective of those other people’s culture. Treat all cultures in their own right and as equal.

Question 116

Postmodern society

Answer 116

Post-modern society = a technologically sophisticated, pluralistic, interconnected globalized society. Four features: 1. Stories 2. Images 3. Choices 4. networks

Question 117

Link between technology and society/social structure

Answer 117

a form of culture in which humans convert material resources to tools to accomplish practical ends

Question 118

Functionalist perspective

Answer 118

society is a living organism, each part important for its survival - Macrosociology

Question 119

Interactionist perspective

Answer 119

everyday forms of interaction explain society as a whole - Microsociology

Question 120

Conflict perspective

Answer 120

distribution of power and allocation of resources - macrosociology

Question 121

Caplow "Rule Enforcement"

Answer 121

-describes how the town and the families living in Middletown celebrate Christmas -gift giving is a social understanding adapted from childhood to adulthood because it has become part of a social system that people are unaware about -"cultural ritual"

Question 122

Miner "Body Ritual among the Nacirema"

Answer 122

-According to Miner, the Nacirema culture presents a highly developed market economy but with a main focus on ritual activity which focuses on the human body and its appearance of health. The Nacirema believe the body to be ugly and detestable and seek to avoid its uncleanliness through ritual and ceremony.

Question 123

Goffman "The Representation of Self"

Answer 123

Erving Goffman: we convey impressions of who we are to others even as those others are doing the same, creating a kind of performance that we can analyze and understand. (dramaturgical approach) * Front stage – where we perform; backstage – prepare and gather props; audience - judges how well we perform * impression management = altering our presentation of self to create distinctive appearances * face-work = we alter our presentation of self in order to maintain a proper image and avoid public embarrassment.

Question 124

Schoon and Cain "Facebook's boundaries"

Answer 124

-"The rise of unfriending demonstrates how an otherwise personal ritual has been transformed into a public act." ABSTRACT -Facebook was established to help students keep in touch after graduation, but now it's being credited with major roles in everything from domestic elections to international uprisings. In its no-longer-insular world, Facebook transforms the private into the public

Question 125

Interaction between individual and society

Answer 125

* Social interaction = reciprocal exchange in which two or more people read, react, and respond to each other. * Our everyday interactions form the building blocks of society. * Social construction of reality involves ongoing interaction between individuals and society

Question 126

Elements of social structure

Answer 126

* Social structure provides the underlying framework of society consisting of the positions people occupy and the relationship between them. * Society’s four elemental building blocks: 1. Statuses & roles 2. Groups 3. Social networks 4. Social institutions

Question 127

What are laws?

Answer 127

formal norms enforced by the state (on of the most powerful forms of social control) ; but whose values and interests?

Question 128

Crime (What is it and what types?)

Answer 128

= violation of criminal law for which some governmental authority applies formal penalties * Index crimes * Crime victimization survey * White collar crime * Victimless crime * Organized crime * Transnational crime

Question 129

Normative culture

Answer 129

consists of the ways we establish, abide by, and enforce principles of conduct