Sun jai aum bhagwani ji Flashcards
(213 cards)
1
Q
What does the Pancreas secrete?
A
Alkaline (Bicarbonate) solution
+ Precursors of digestive enzymes
2
Q
What are the 3x motor symptoms of a damaged basal ganglia?
A
Tremor at rest Bradykinesia Hypokinesia Rigidity (increased tone) -mood symptom(emotionally flat)
3
Q
What are the 3x motor symptoms of a damaged cerebellar system?
A
cerebellum damaged
- intention tremor
- unco-ordinated movements
- loss of balance
- ataxia
4
Q
What is ataxia?
A
disorder in muscle co-ordination due to damage to the cerebellum (such as trauma or disease)
5
Q
what is aphasia?
A
disorder of speech associated with the brain
6
Q
What does the bipotential gonad develop from?
A
intermediate mesoderm
5th week of development
7
Q
What does the female internal genetalia consist of?
A
FUV
Fallopian tube
Uterus
1/3 Vagina
8
Q
What does the bipotential gonad need to become a testis?
A
SRY gene
9
Q
What is anabolism?
A
protein synthesis
occurs in male secondary sexual development
10
Q
What are the 5 distinguishing features between a bronchiole and bronchus?
A
- small size of bronchiole (less than 1mm)
- simple columnar (instead of pseudostratified) epithelium
- club/clara cells
- absence of goblet cells and mucous glands
- abscence of cartilage plates
11
Q
What is a unique feature of bronchus?
A
irregular cartilage plates
tubular mucous glands
12
Q
What is Po2 in venous blood?
A
37mmHg
13
Q
What is Po2 in arterial blood?
A
95mmHg
14
Q
What is PCo2 in arterial blood?
A
38mmHg
15
Q
What is Pco2 in venous blood?
A
44mmHg
16
Q
What is the meaning of the range of O2 starting values?
A
Pro
17
Q
In which of the 5 columns would the enzymes of citric acid cycle be located?
A
cells
18
Q
What is correct mucosa muscularis and externa muscularis, or muscularis mucosa and muscularis externa?
A
MUSCULARIS always comes FIRST
- muscularis mucosa
- muscularis externa
19
Q
What are the functions of the lamina propria?
A
fibrous
soft and is Loose connective tissue- allows the epithelial surface layer to move
contains lymphocytes/WBC
contains blood vessels- to take away the products of digestion/nutrients
20
Q
What is the epithelium dependant on?
A
dependant on area, but usually secrete alot of Fluid, Mucous and Enzymes
-RAPID TURN OVER
21
Q
What is the function of the muscularis mucosa?
A
movement INDEPENDANT of muscularis externa
- squeezing lacteals
- squeezing secretions from glands
22
Q
Where is the site of sperm storage in the female reproductive tract?
A
isthmus
23
Q
What percent does bone the organ and tissue compose in the body?
A
18% of body weight
24
Q
What is the definition of bone the organ and bone the tissue?
A
Organ= multiple different types of tissue Tissue= highly specialised CT and dynamic
25
What are the size functions of bone?
1. support (rigid framework)
2. protection (internal organs/vital and soft tissue)
3. movement (tendon attachment)
4. Ca2+(hormone and enzyme production) and P reserve (strength of bone)
5. Haemopoesis
6. Fat (triglyceride) storage
26
What is the role of the Ca2+ and P reserve in bone?
strength of the tissue
reserve
mineral homeostasis (release of minerals into blood)
Ca2+ (99% bone tissue, 1% serum/tissue fluid), contraction and hormone and enzyme production
P (5x building blocks), DNA, cell membrane, pH, enzymes, ATP
27
For what 5x structures is Phosphorous the building blocks for?
1. DNA
2. Cell membranes
3. ATP
4. enzymes
5. pH
28
What is the allocation of calcium?
99% in bone tissue
| 1% in serum/tissue fluid
29
What is located in haemopoetic tissue?
1. developing blood cells (RBC, WBC, platelets)
2. adipocytes
3. fibroblasts
4. macrophages
5. all within a network of reticular fibres
30
How do the numbers of bone differ with age?
born= 270 centres of ossification
then body tries to head to a state of fusion (hip to vertebrae)
adult= 206
elderly=
31
What are the two major roles of the axial skeleton?
support
protection
(+haemopoesis)
80 bones
32
What are the two major roles of the axial skeleton?
movement
fat storage
126 bones
33
How thick is the outer epiphyseal shell?
less than 0.5mm
34
What is the difference between the thickness of endosteum or periosteum?
endosteum thinner
35
What sort of forces can the diaphysis resist?
bending and torsion
36
What sort of bone is compact bone?
cortical bone (cortex)
37
What is the composition of endosteum?
fibrocellular layer
38
Where are sharpey fibres located?
periosteum
tendons
ligaments
39
What is the composition of periosteum?
fibrocellular sheath
| dense IRregular
40
What is it called when bone just contains air and where is it located?
Pneumatized
face and sinus bones
(otherwise would have thick neck muscles)
41
What is the junction between where the epiphysis and diaphysis join?
metaphysis
| - hyaline cartilage and trabeculae
42
What is the largest bone in your body?
femur
| acetabulum of pelvis bone (ball and socket joint)
43
What is the constancy of the pattern or trabeculae?
constantly being re-modelled - as how it is engineered is dependant on the forces imposed on it
(fighting fusion/equilibrium point)
irregular lattice
44
What are the two appendicular bones which contain red bone marrow?
pelvis
| head of humerous
45
What part of bone is vascular and innervated?
periosteum
46
What are the four primary tissues of the body?
muscle
epithelium
nervous
connective tissue
47
What is the role of connective tissue?
```
most common body tissue- out of all CT Collagen is the most common
highly variable in function
binds, supports and strengthens other tissues
Primarily a Structural role
packaging tissue to fill up space
contains BV - keeps the tissue alive
contains Nerves- allows you to feel it
1. Ct
2. Cells and ECM
3. Ground substance and fibres
```
48
What is the first category of CT?
cells and ECM
49
What is the second category of ECM?
Ground substance and Fibres
| Ct --> cells and ECM ==> ground substance and fibres
50
What is the organic component of bone(ECM)?
Fibres
| 1/3 dry weight
51
What is the weight of the organic component of bone?
fibres
| 1/3 dry weight
52
What is the percentage of collagen in bone?
Type 1>Type 5 (2 out of 29)
25%
stretching/pulling/tensional force in same plane- otherwise would collapse
53
What is the inorganic component of bone (ECM)?
ground substance
25% water
2/3 dry weight/50% hydroxyapatite crystallized salt
54
What percentage of ground substance is water?
25% (less hydrated relative to other CT's ECM)
55
What is the main component of ground substance?
```
hydroxyapatite
50% bone
2/3 dry weight
crystalised salt
gives bone its properties
+ contains the calcium and phosphorous reserve
```
56
What is the job of cells?
resist and maintain torsion
| typically tend to be low density in connective tissue
57
What do osteogenic cells arrive from?
UNspecialised embryonic stem cell
Mesenchyme
form Embryonic connective tissue
58
Where does the cell division of bone occur?
the ONLY cell to undergo division is unspecialised embryonic stem cell (mesenchyme)
59
What is the composition of osteoid?
70% collagen
30% proteins and proteoglycans
hence ORGANIC component(minaly collagen) prior to hydroxyapatite
60
What is another name for osteogenic cells?
osteoprogenitor
thin and flattened
differentiated under the influence of cues
61
What is calcification?
infiltration of hydroxyapatite
80% in 3weeks --> 20% in 1-2 years
due to more water BEING DISPLACED (Ca2+ needs tissue fluid to move nutrients around cells)
strong and therefore nutritive fluids cannot flow through
62
What can nutrients diffuse through?
Nutrients CANNOT diffuse through bone,
need tissue fluid (hence why calcification slows at end as water is being displaced (less of it) to transport the nutrients
63
Are osteocytes isolated and dead?
"lattice grid work of live cells"
no
as they are just trapped osteoblasts can revert back)
and arent isolated as have canaliculi
64
What does canaliculi allow communication with?
other osteocytes
| + osteoblasts on the surface
65
What is the rate of movement of osteoclasts?
1mm every 20 days
66
How many cells join to form an osteoclast?
```
MONOCYTE PRECURSOR/PROGEN
20 to form syncytium
max 50
short lived
acids(ph4 hydroxyapatite breakdown)+ hydrolytic enzymes from lysosomes (collagen breakdown)
```
67
What is the pH of acids released by osteoclasts?
ph4
68
Where are the enzymes stored in osteoclasts?
```
released from lysosomes
remove proteins (collagen)
```
69
What are the main features of a osteoclast?
Howship's Lacunae is FURRY as the acid has dissolved the hydroxyapatite and the collagen fibres are exposed(unlike smooth calcified bone)
ruffles border to increase contact and SA
the tight seal is called the CLEAR Zone
70
What dissolves collagen fibres?
hydrolytic enzymes from lysosomes
71
What dissolves hydroxyapatite?
enzymes
72
What is the texture of calcified bone?
smooth
73
What is the difference in histology slides of bone?
Blue Lacuna= no calcium Ca2+ salts
| Bright Pink lacuna= yes calcium Ca2+ salts
74
How much of our skeleton is replaced?
on average we replace about 10% of our skeelton
75
What was appositional growth and bone reabsorption balance dependant on?
```
Completely independant from one another
BALANCe however is dependant on AGE
-young= more appositional
-teenage= equal
- (35+) adult- more reabsoprtion
```
76
Why cant bone undergo interstitial growth?
Bone is too rigid to expand
| resists deformity
77
What happens to osteoblasts after they have finished secreting osteoid?
1. revert back to osteogenic cells
| 2. die
78
What would happen if only appositional growth occurred?
bone would be too thick and unnecessarily heavy
| therefore bone reabsorption makes it efficient
79
What forms resting endo/periosteum?
osteoGENIC cells
80
What cues bone reabsorption?
osteocytes- either dying osteocytes of monitoring osteocytes (notice the dying ECM)
cues from monocyte precursors to exit blood vessels/VENULES
This is because they see damage that THEY CANNOT REPAIR, hence release cues to settle and start boring
81
What inhibits osteoclast formation?
osteoBlasts inhibit osteoclasts
| Note- osteoclasts die via apoptosis- tightly regulated/short lived
82
What is rickets?
high amounts of osteoid
-poor diet low in calcium (third world countries)
low amounts of calcium/calcification
-insufficent ca2+ to calcify quick enough
-stays soft and rubbery and deforms due to gravity and other forces
83
What is rickets in adults?
osteoclamacia
insufficent sunlight
insufficent vitamin D to absorb Ca2+ (through intestinal wall)
84
What does reformed broken bone more?
Callus
| LOOSELY packed collagen of woven bone
85
What is the orientation of collagen in lamellar bone?
up to 90 degrees out of phase
- is dependant on the forces exposed
- can withstand forces from different directions therefore significantly stronger
86
What is the percent of spongy bone in bones?
20%
vary due to function
Longbone= 10% at ends/epiphysis
Vertebrae= 40% at more compression
87
What is the difference between bone turnover?
spongy bone has a 5x greater turnover> than compact bone
therefore high Ca2+ and P turnover, as more mineral homesostasis- as reserve can quickly be pulled down form spongy bone --> serum
also receives more nutrients as high surface area and highly vascular
88
Which part of the bone is most likely to be effected by a disease?
medullary cavity
| as is highly vascular
89
What is the role of trabeculae?
```
resist stressors(compression)
transfer force without breaking
```
90
What sort of blood vessels are located in compact bone?
Periosteal blood vessels (venules and arterioles)
91
Which nerves are touched during an operation to anetheasize the bone?
CANNOT anethasise periosteal blood vessels during a bone biopsy
-therefore is very painful
92
What is circumferential lamellae?
continuous layer around the outer and inner edge of compact bone
-due to osteoblasts putting down new layers but not always knowing to put down osteons
therefore cells ARENT typically found on the outside of bone
93
What happens to the periosteum in primary bone formation?
becomes endosteum
REMAINS ACTIVE
(due to the ridges become prominent and fusing together)
94
What can the cutting cone be referred to?
cellular drill
95
What is the movement of a cutting cone?
along the predominantly plane of stress
96
Why does the blood vessel grow into the secondary osteon?
to keep the osteoblasts alive
97
With what can you identify if bone is compact or lamellae?
polarized light
| -can see if there are osteons or not
98
What junction can be seen in secondary osteon formation?
between new secondary osteon and pre-existing old osteon
=Cement line
=proteoglycan glue
99
Where are cement lines found?
in articular cartilage
| between new secondary osteons and prexisting old osteon - sticks old and new together
100
What are key points in endochondral ossification?
epiphyseal plate can deform as it is rubbery soft
gets thicker, but the cartilage that is closest to the metaphysis is dying
(one osteoid)
rate of epiphyseal growth SLOWS down at the end of puberty
101
What are the three main functions of joints?
1. force transmission (weakest part of skeleton and subject to huge amount of strain)
2. growth
3. movement (natural break in skeleton.can train your joints via stretching them (flexibility)
102
What is the weakest part of the skeleton?
joints
103
How long is the digestive system?
5m
| 9m w/o muscle and CT
104
What is the digestive system largest at?
largest immune system
| largest organ system (including its epithelial glands- pancreas and liver)
105
Where is the main location of bacteria in the digestive system and what sort of relationship does it have?
1x more bacteria in the large intestine than any other place
| body has a SYMBIOTIC relationship with bacteria
106
What is digestion?
the chemical breakdown of ingested foods into absorbable molecules
107
What is absorption?
the movement of nutrients, water and electrolytes through the epithelial lining of the gut --> into the blood or lymph
108
What is similar to bone in the mouth?
dentine
109
What are the features of dentine?
similar to bone
made out of odontoblasts
odontoblast cells closer to the pulp
110
What are the features of enamel?
crystalline rods and prisms
of calcium phosphate and c carbonate
acellular and no sensation
Hard for longevity
111
Where is the vascular and innervated path of teeth?
ONLY PULP
112
Where is the alive part of the tooth?
ONLY PULP
| -as the pulp is the only part which contains blood vessels (and nerves)
113
What is cementum made out of?
calcified connective tissue
- cements to jaw bone
- all around ROOT
- below jaw bone
114
What has a rapid turn over in the mouth?
peridontal ligament (is made out of mostly collagen fibres)
115
What is the bone of the socket?
alveolar bone
116
What is periodontal disease?
the result of having food getting trapped in the gap between the tooth and root
-avoided by regular flossing
117
What is the periodontal ligament predominantly made out of?
collagen fibres
118
What are the three directions of muscle in the tongue?
LTV
Longitudinal
Transverse
Vertical
119
What is the arrangement of fungiform like?
non-uniform (arranged between filiform)
120
What are the features of the largest papilla?
```
circumvallate
8-12x
large amounts of taste buds
gustatory PORES called channels
send signals to your brain so you can actually smell food
```
121
What are the five things the tongue allows you to do?
```
eat
taste
chew
swallow
phonetics
```
122
Where is the sublingual gland located?
under the tongue
123
What can cause the secretion of saliva?
smelling
seeing
tasting
thinking about food
124
What are the three main components of saliva?
enzyme
mucous
water
125
Is the liver in front or behind the stomach?
infront
| therefore the gallbladder has to also be behind the liver
126
What are the fourth way of increasing surface area?
simple tubular glands
| forming pits
127
Where is the myenteric nerve plexus located?
between the inner circular and outer longitudinal muscularis externa
128
What is the composition of the serosa?
outer mesothelium
| inner CT Bed
129
Where are blood vessels located in the four tunics?
in both the MUCOSA AND the SUBMUCOSA
| submucosa has larger as have combined here (portal vein included)
130
How long is the oesophagus?
```
25cm long
(pharynx --> stomach)
```
131
What is the rate of flow in oesophagus?
5 sec for food
| 1 sec for fluid
132
What is the rate of turnover in oesophagus?
stratified squamous divide in basal layers
| every 7 days
133
What are the four components of the stomach?
Cardia
Fundus
Body
Pylorus
134
What are the 6 functions of the stomach?
1. secrete acid, water and enzyme
2. produce chyme
3. breakdown protein
4. Absorption of water, ions and drugs (aspirin and alcohol) DOESNT ABSORB AND FOOD
5. Transport
6. Protection (against own secretions/microbes/acid/pepsin)
135
What is the volume of secretions of the stomach?
2-3 L daily
| acids mucous enzymes
136
What is chyme?
food + gastric juices
137
Where is the absorption of aspirin and alcohol?
in stomach
| stomach absorbs water, ions and some drugs (alcohol and aspirin) but NO FOOD absorbed at stomach
138
What is the pyloric sphincter controlled by?
volume
| hormones
139
Why is the stomach for storage?
As food is eaten quicker than is can be digested and absorbed
(provides more time)
140
How fast is a churning wave?
very 20 seconds
141
What is the rate of turnover or surface mucous cells?
2-3days
142
What cells are activated at every meal time?
mucous neck cells
143
Where does protein breakdown occur?
20% in stomach
| 80% in small intestine
144
Waht do the chief cells secrete?
```
pepsinogen (protein breakdown)
gastric lipase (fat breakdown)
```
145
What has the negative feed back?
gastrin cells (stomach enteroendocrine)
146
How big is the liver?
1.5 kg
147
How many metabolic functions can hepatocytes perform?
over 500
148
Where are hepatocytes derived from?
```
embryonic endoderm
(epithelial gland)
```
149
What are the 5 functions of the liver?
1. production of bile (similar to surfactant)
2. Detoxification (drugs, poison, metabolites)
3. Storage (glycogen as glucose and vitamins esp Vitamin A)
4. Synthesis of Plasma Proteins (albumin, globulin, blood clotting proteins)-reassemble and repackage
5. recycles old RBC into more RBC or other chemicals
150
What is similar to surfactant?
bile
151
What are the fenestrations between hepatocytes?
fenestrated endothelium of sinusoid
152
What are the funky names in the plates of hepatocytes?
tight junctions
| lymph space of disse
153
What is the size of a hepatocyte?
2mm length lobule
1mm wide lobule
hexagonal in cross sections
154
Where space in the centre of lobule?
central vein
155
What is the endocrine function of the pancreas?
islets of Langerhan
1% of the pancreas
secretes insulin and glycogen
(blood glucose regulation)
156
What is the exocrine function of the pancreas?
secretes pancreatic alkaline solution BICARBONATE
precursors of digestive enzymes
-these digestive enzymes activated once in small intestine and DIGEST fats, carbs and proteins + NUCLEIC ACID
157
Where are acinus located?
in the pancreas
158
What is the pathway of substance movement in the pancreas?
secretory cell -> acini --> intercalated ducts --> interlobar ducts --> main pancreatic duct
159
How long is the duodenum?
25 cm
| duodent means 12 (x2 ish)
160
What does jejunus mean?
empty
| primary part for digestion and absorbtion
161
What does ileum mean?
twisted
| primarily for absorbtion
162
What is the primary pathway of functions in the small intestine?
Digestion --> digestion + absorption --> absoprtion
163
What is special about the duodenum?
contains the Glands of Brunner
| mucous glands
164
Where are the glands of Brunner located?
duodenum
165
What sort of glands are the glands of brunner in the duodenum?
mucous glands
166
What sort of folds are plicae?
circular folds
167
What are the covering and core of plicae?
mucosa
| submucosa
168
What are the covering and core of villi?
epithelium
| lamina propria
169
What are the covering and core of microvilli?
cell membrane
| cytoplasm
170
What are the two functions of paneth cells?
```
secrete lysozyme (anti bactericidal)
phagocytotic
```
171
What is the turn over of small intestine enterocytes?
2-3 days
-have microvilli
columnar absorptive cells
172
What is the turnover of the whole mucosa as it moves upwards in the small intestine?
every 5 days
173
What is the function of secretin?
signal the pancreas to produce pancreatic juices - to neutralise the acidic chyme with its alkalineness
secretin is secreted in response to acidic chyme coming into the small intestine
174
What leaves the hepatic venules?
carbs (monosaccharides), proteins (amino-acids), water and electrolytes
175
Where in the body does secretin, a little bit of gastrin and cholecystokinin released?
small intestine
176
What absorbs lipids that are too difficult to get into the venules (currently transporting monosaccharides, amino acids, water and electrolytes)
lacteals
(lactation) milked by lamina propria's smooth muscle
fats/tryglycerides that are too big for venules
177
How long is the large intestine?
1.5 m long with 7 parts
178
What are the 6x functions of the large intestine?
1. absorbs water and electrolytes
2. secrete mucus
3. formation of feces (chyme--> feces)
4. fermentation- the manner of digesting lignin - this is their energy + proponiate and buterate for protecting enterocytes
5. bacteria products (vitamin B12 vitamin K(blood clotting))
6. defecation - stores fecal matter
179
What is the fermentation function of the large intestine?
cellulose and lignin - this is their energy
| proponiate and buterate for protecting enterocytes
180
What is vitamin K used for?
blood clotting
181
What are you at risk at if you have diarrhea?
low vitamin K
| product from bacteria in large intestine (as well as vitamin B12)
182
Out of the three functions what occurs at the small intestine?
absorption
183
What is the composition of feces?
30% bacteria
| 30% undigested dietary fibre
184
What distributes the flow in the large intestine?
illeocecal valve
| controls chyme outflow
185
Where is there a high concentration of lymphocytes in the body?
small intestine
| AND LARGE intestine - protection against bacteria
186
What is the caecum and does it change size?
dilated pouch
| largest in herbivores
187
What determines the colour of feces?
bilirubin content
188
What sort of a muscle is the tenia coli?
3x strips
longitudinal muscle
Only in the decending colon and rectum
189
What are the lymph clusters in the large intestine called?
lymph nodules
190
What is located in the descending colon and rectum?
teni coli
191
How long is the rectum?
20 cm
192
how long is the anal canal?
last 2 cm
193
What is a complete joint replacement called?
athroplasty
194
What is an arthroplasty?
a complete joint replacement
195
What is special about the socket cup in an arthroplasty?
the back of the cup is porous to allow the SPONGY bone to grow through it
there are two ways to attach metal into body
pressfit
bone cement
196
What is the relationship between spongy bone and arthroplasty?
The back of the cup is porous/has pores, allowing the spongy bone to grow in it (cementing it in) -either through bone cementing or press fit
197
What happens to the femur in a hip arthroplasty?
The femur's medullary space is dug out and the tip of the femur is cut off
the long SHAFT of the joint is placed down inside the femur
-in the femur's medullary space which has been remounted
198
What texture is the cup?
removable polyethylene sleeve (greasy plastic)
199
How long does an arthroplasty last?
10-15 years
as by now the metal grinding on plastic will give off a few metal or plastic fragments
These can go behind the cup or down the shaft
osteoclasts will move in and get rid of these fragments but will in turn erode the bone
-this will result in a Loose joint
200
How many types of arthritis are there?
osteoid arthritis
| rheumatoid arthritis
201
What is prupose of calcified cartilage?
There is alot of sheer force exposed to cartilage
The top 3 function layers can be deformed
all this force is being transferred to the narrow osteochondral junction
the calcified cartilage acts as a buffer
it Spreads the sheer force along the subchondral bone (increase SA)
enough to ensure that you don't delaminate you cartilage when you put a lot of sheer force on it
202
Where is hyaluronic acid found in a baby?
hyaluronic acid is found in the umbilical cord
avoid knotting of the umbilical cord
due to it being a long chain
and being able to hold onto/attach water
203
What is osteoporosis?
when you bone has alot of pores in it
204
What is it called when you bone has lots of pores in it?
osteoporosis
205
What is the position of the collagen fibres in the middle zone?
oblique
| 45 degrees to the SURFACE
206
What sort of texture is the surface zone of articular cartilage?
felt like
207
What has a felt like texture?
surface zone of articular cartilage
208
Where does migration occur in articular cartilage?
```
deep zone
cells mitotically dividing
secreting ECM (maintaining environment)
nests
migrate upwards
```
209
What is the importance of the cell mitotically dividing in the deep zone of articular cartilage?
creates a reserve of chondrocytes
| interstitial growth
210
What colour is calcified cartilage?
slightly pink
211
Where is the first sign of Tide mark?
at the tide mark
212
What is the tide mark representative of in relation to calcification?
The tide mark is the first point to find hydroxyapatite
| therefore it is LOW in PG
213
Where is a place in articular cartilage that is surprisingly low in proteoglycans?
The tide mark
It is the first place to find hydroxyapaitite
therefore it is calcified
therefore it is low in PG
