taks 4

Question 1

Function of the lobes

Answer 1

Cerebral cortex:
Frontal lobe: consciousness, speech and behavior
Parietal lobe: senses and cognitive functions
Occipital lobe: visual
Temporal lobe: remembering and recognize

Question 2

Subcortical structures

Answer 2

hypocampus (memory)
Amygdala (emotion)
Basel ganglia (reward and movement)
Thalamus (sensory information)
Hypothalamus (regulation of bodily functions)

Question 3

Brain areas involved with fear/anxiety

Answer 3

The fear network:
- Amygdala: involved in several fear and emotion processes like fear conditioning, and the processing of emotionally and socially relevant information
- Insula: central structure for emotional processing, for subjective feelings and interoceptive awareness.
- Anterior cingulate cortex: plays an important role in approach and avoidance and fear learning.
Ventral ACC –> affective component (emotion/feelings)
Dorsal ACC –> Cognitive side of response

Question 4

Dual path model

Answer 4

Low road (direct path)
- Sensory stimulus –> thalamus –> amygdala (lateral nucleus -> central nucleus) –> behavior (defense), activation of AZS or HPA axis or startle response

High road (indirect path)
- Sensory stimulus –> thalamus –> cortex –> amygdala (lateral nucleus -> central nucleus) –> behavior (defense), activation of the AZS or HPA axis or startle response.

refers to the concept in the brain of two parallel pathways in the brain that process visual information.

Question 5

Ventral and dorsal pathway

Answer 5

Ventral pathway: what
dorsal pathway: where

Question 6

Cortical/ subcortical pathways

Answer 6

Cortical pathways: interpretation and cognitieve assessment of fear stimuli, regulation of emotions and fitting reactions to fearful situations.

Subcortical pathways: fear processing, these structures receive threatening stimuli from sensory pathways to initiate a fear response

Question 7

Fear networks different disorders

Answer 7

• Specific phobia: hyperreactivity amygdala, insular and dorsal ACC
• Social phobia: hyperreactivity amygdala insula and dysfunction amygdala/insula and medial PFC
• Generalized anxiety disorder: dysfunction amygdala and insula and hypoactivity medial PFC and ACC
• Agoraphobia: hyperreactivity amygdala, ACC, brainstem and hypoactivity medial PFC
• PTSD: hyperreactivity amygdala and insula & hypo activity dorsal ACC and hypo campus
• OCD: hyperreactivity orbitofrontal cortex and ACC and high response of striatum.

Question 8

Function amygdala and hypocampus

Answer 8

work together to process emotional memories

Question 9

Function gyrus cinguli

Answer 9

Processing of positive and negative reinforcers and motivation

Question 10

Function Cortx orbitofrontale

Answer 10

Reasoning, planning and decision making

Question 11

Function septum pellucidum

Answer 11

intermediate between cognitive processes (amygdala hippocampus) and emotional processes (amygdala hypothalamus).

Question 12

Function nucleus accumbens

Answer 12

Plays a role in positive experiences like desires, motivation, passion and satisfaction

Question 13

Neurotransmitters and fear (5)

Answer 13

• CRF –> forms start signal of stressresponse in hypothalamus
• Noradrenaline –> plays a role in response to stress, causes fitting behavior to fear
• GABA –> inhibition of signals in the brain and CZS. GABA inhibits, when GABA binds on the GABA-receptor, ion channels will open and chloride is released which inhibits the activity of the amygdala, as a consequence, the individual will experience less fear.
• Serotonin –> influences memory, mood, sleep, emotion, appetite.
• Dopamine –> prepares your body to fight or flight.

Question 14

GABA dieper uitgelegd

Answer 14

plays a important role in regulation of fear in the brain. GABA works inhibitory, which means that it decreases the activity of neurons. It also helps suppressing the excessive excitation and activity in the brain.

With anxiety disorders there is often a imbalance between stimulating and inhibiting neurotransmitters. GABA-system plays a crucial role in keeping balance of these neurotransmitters, and feelings of relaxation.

When neurons are activated, they will release GABA in the synapse and BAGA binds on specific receptors on nearby neurons.
Binding on GABA receptors will cause an inhibition on the activity of the postsynaptic neurons. It opens ion channels and chloride ions will enter the cel what causes that the membrane potential of the neuron will turn more negative (hyperpolarisation), which results in less neural activity and inhibition of transmission from sensory impulses.

In case of anxiety disordered patients, it can be that there is a reduced GABA-activity, which leads to disruption of neural activity.

Question 15

Medication focussed on the GABA-system (benzodiazepines and GABAA-receptionists)

Answer 15

These medications increase the GABA-activity in the brain, which can help with more relaxation and anxiety relief.

Benzodiazepinen –> works calming and smoothes out emotions. Works at best on chronic fear/ tension.
enhance the effect of GABA by increasing the number of time the channel opens.

Question 16

Other medication for fear

Answer 16

• Beta-receptorblockers –> decreasing heartbeat, which also causes the blood pressure to decrease. It reduces bodily symptoms.
• Antidepressants –> effective after 4-6 weeks, SSRI–> blockade of serotonin reuptake + subsequent enhancement of serotonergic function
• Psychotherapy

Question 17

Function of neuroimaging techniques for anxiety treatment

Answer 17

• Could potentially identify common neural pathways of anxiety treatment (help us to understand how new pharmacological treatment options for anxiety disorders might work)
• Offer the opportunity to monitor structural and functional neuronal changes as a result of psychotherapy and might help to further refine and optimize psychotherapeutic strategies.
• Pretreatment characteristics in structural and functional neuroanatomy might become important predictors for the kind of treatment that suits best for a particular patient.