Task 2

Question 1

What is working memory?

Answer 1

Refers to a system responsible for temporarily storing and manipulating information

It functions as a mental workspace that can be flexibly used to support everyday cognitive abilities that require both processing and storage

WM is limited by the amount information needed to store and process

Question 2

What are the main characteristics of working memory?

Answer 2

Temporary storage
Manipulation of information
Mental workspace
Limited storage capacity
Susceptible to distractions

Question 3

What happens to stored information in the working memory when one is distracted (e.g. by another thought)?

Answer 3

Information gets completely lost, person has to start over

Question 4

What are the four components and their associated functions of the Broadbent filter model?

Answer 4

Sensory store - holds a lot of information briefly

Attention filter - only stimuli containing certain physical characteristics are given attention & transferred to the WM.

Working memory - holds a few items

Long term memory: Storehouse of knowledge accumulated throughout the lifetime.

Question 5

Describe Miller’s chunking model of working memory

Answer 5

Through the use of strategies (e.g. rehearsal), adults are able to retain up to 7 digits in WM, and only 3-4 without strategies.

Working memory is said to be a mental faculty where plans & subplans are remembered. One subplan may be carried out while another is kept in mind along with the master plan.

Question 6

Describe the Baddeley & Hitch Working Memory model

Answer 6

Information are stored in different systems.

Central executive: controls the whole system & allocates which information is to be stored in the subsystems (i.e. phonological loop & visuospatial sketchpad). It also handles cognitive tasks.

Episodic buffer: holds semantic info for short term & binding the association between phonological & visual/spatial info.

Visuospatial sketchpad (inner eye): stores & processes information in a visual or spatial form (e.g. navigation)

Phonological loop: it deals with spoken & written materials: there is a phonological store that processes speech perception & stores spoken words), and an articulation control process that processes speech production, and rehearsal strategies.

Question 7

Describe the Cowan Model of Working memory

Answer 7

Working memory = short-term storage component
Its capacity is dependent on attention & other central executive processes (makes use of stored info or interacts with LTM.

Dissociatioons can occur depending on the similarity of features: it appears that visual irrelevant materials interfere with formation of visual imagery but not visual storage.

Attention filter is internalized: info does not pass through a filter but all info activate the long-term memory to some extent

Question 8

Name the different types of Working memory models

Answer 8

Broadbent Filter Model
Miller - Chunking
Baddeley & HItch - multistore model
Cowan Working memory model

Question 9

Describe the central executive in Baddeley & Hitch’s model.

Answer 9

Central executive: controls the whole system & allocates which information is to be stored in the subsystems (i.e. phonological loop & visuospatial sketchpad). It also handles cognitive tasks.

Question 10

Describe the episodic buffer in Baddeley & Hitch’s model.

Answer 10

Episodic buffer: holds semantic info for short term & binding the association between phonological & visual/spatial info.

Question 11

Describe the Visuospatial sketchpad in the Baddeley & Hitch model.

Answer 11

Visuospatial sketchpad (inner eye): stores & processes information in a visual or spatial form (e.g. navigation)

Question 12

Describe the phonological loop in the Baddeley & Hitch Model

Answer 12

Phonological loop: it deals with spoken & written materials: there is a phonological store that processes speech perception & stores spoken words), and an articulation control process that processes speech production, and rehearsal strategies.

Question 13

How does Cowan describe working memory?

Answer 13

Working memory can be conceptualized as a short-term storage component with a capacity that is heavily dependent on attention & other central executive processes that make use of stored information or that interact with long-term memory

Question 14

Why does dissociations occur according to Cowan?

Answer 14

Dissociations can occur depending on the similarity of the features; it appears that visual irrelevant materials interfere with formation of visual imagery but not visual storage.

Question 15

Describe Cowan’s attention filter.

Answer 15

Attention filter is internalized: info does not pass through a filter but all info activate the long-term memory to some extent

Question 16

Both Cowan & Broadbent talk about an attention filter. How do the attention filter in each model differ?

Answer 16

Cowan: Attention filter is internalized: info does not pass through a filter but all info activate the long-term memory to some extent

Broadbent: attention filter is used to determine which information is inputted to the WM.

Question 17

Explain the long term and short term memory in Cowan’s model.

Answer 17

Short term memory is an aspect of LTM & LTM is an aspect of short term memory. If you put attention on something then it is WM.

Info stays in short term memory even if attention is not being paid to it.

Question 18

Describe the limited capacity of focus in the Cowan model.

Answer 18

In short, the focus of attention is the set of highly activated long-term representations that are currently needed for ongoing processing. The focus is capacity limited and can be directed externally to incoming sensory information or internally to relevant long-term memory representations

Question 19

Name two ways in which the working memory is limited according to Cowan.

Answer 19

How many items can be held at once: this is related to the ascribed attention

The amount of time for which an item remains in the WM when no longer rehearsed/refreshed/chunking/associations: this is ascribed to the activated portion of long term memory (limit up to 30s depending of tasks). – decay.

Question 20

Describe the general trend of working memory development

Answer 20

Improvements in WM performance observed between 4 – 11 years

Linear increase in performance continues to about 12 years then it levels off towards 15 years.

Question 21

Give some explanations for why working memory improves after 4 years of age.

Answer 21

Maturation of brain: faster processing speed  easier to retain it

Better strategies with age (mnemonic processing)

Capacity improves: make better connections

Decay of items does not change over time: differences in decay don’t explain improvement in memory.

Number of memory slots increases with age.

Question 22

Name three measures of working memory

Answer 22

Reading Span
Listening recall test - automated WM assessment
Working memory test battery for children

Question 23

Describe the reading span test for WM.

Answer 23

participant makes judgements about the semantic properties of sentences while remembering the last word of each sentence in sequence.

Question 24

Describe the Keep track task for measuring WM.

Answer 24

Participants shown several target categories on lower half of computer screen

Then presented with 16 words serially (2000msec per word)

Target categories remained on screen during each trial
Participants had to recall the last word presented in each target categories

Thus, they had to continuously select words that belong to the target categories to update their working memory.

Question 25

Tammes et al. wanted to : investigate relationships between change in verbal working memory performance & change in cortical & subcortical volumes in a group of children & adolescents. Describe their procedures & methods.

Answer 25

Longitudinal project: Neurocognitive Development N: 8-19 years 79 children, 35 adolescents (girls) Two time points Keep track test, + Wechsler Abbreviated Scale of Intelligence & MRI

Question 26

What were the three main findings from Tammes et al's study?

Answer 26

The degree of improvement in verbal WM performance decreased linearly over the investigated age range WM development was related to cortical volume reduction in widespread frontal and parietal regions, overlapping fronto-parietal network active in WM tasks The relationships did not significantly interact with age.

Question 27

Tammes et al found that WM development was associated with cortical reduction in several regions. What were these regions?

Answer 27

Fronto & parietal regions bilateral PFC, PP region, central sulci

Question 28

What are some mnemonitc strategies that can be used to improve WM?

Answer 28

Rehearsal strategies Elaborative strategies Attentional refreshing Chunking

Question 29

Define cumulative rehearsal strategies.

Answer 29

repetition of the most recently presented word, and practicing it with the others

Question 30

Define elaborative strategies.

Answer 30

are useful for long term learning. They involve making a coherent story based on the items.

Question 31

Define attentional refreshing.

Answer 31

It is the act of bringing memory items in the focus of attention

Question 32

Define chunking.

Answer 32

formation of new associations/recognition of existing ones in order to reduce the number of independent items to keep track in WM.

Question 33

Why is working memory important in the classroom?

Answer 33

Reading, Mathematics Following rules General learning concept formation

Question 34

Describe how WM relates to concept formation

Answer 34

New concepts are formed when existing concepts are joined/bound together. They are bound in the focus of attention. These existing concepts must co-exist in the working memory for the concept to be formed.

Question 35

Describe how WM relates to control processes in the classroom

Answer 35

Working is memory is related to one’s ability to stay on task Individuals with low span have difficulties to stay on tasks that requires their focus of attention. Both low and high span-scoring individuals tend to not want to pay attention if a task is boring.

Question 36

WM in TDC is said to predict their later reading achievement. Can WM be improved in children with reading disabilities?

Answer 36

no, because it is a sustained deficit

Question 37

Explain why the relations between WM & mathematics are age-dependent

Answer 37

Verbal WM seems to be related to math in 7 year olds but not in adolescent population; this is because it plays a crucial role when children are younger With age, other factors are more important: e.g. number knowledge and strategies

Question 38

Explain how visuo-spatial memory is related to mathematics. And is visuo-spatial deficits in children related to WM?

Answer 38

Visuo-spatial memory is also linked with mathematical skills: they function as a mental blackboard to support number representation (e.g. in counting). Those with deficits in visuo-spatial memory have less room to hold in mind relevant info

Question 39

It is said that children with WM do not make improvement overtime. What interventions can be used to aid them with WM tasks?

Answer 39

Ensure that they can remember what they are doing (e.g. simple instructions, frequent repetition of questions) Reduce WM demands for tasks that require both processing & storage of information Break down tasks into separate steps Help them develop effective strategies for coping with situations which they experience WM failures Teach to the level of WM

Question 40

How can teachers teach to the level of one's WM capacity?

Answer 40

Adjust materials to fit the learner Individual difference within an age group affect one’s ability of processing materials The teacher must decide whether it is best to allow the student to use their current favoured strategy or instill a more effective strategy. Considerations of cognitive load & cognitive development: high cognitive load may mean that the student is not able to follow instructions, however, too little cognitive load may lead to disengagement. WM demands of language production do not always match the demands of the recipients’ language comprehension

Question 41

Name three ways in which children with WM deficits can be helped to develop effective strategies for coping with situations in which they experience WM failures?

Answer 41

Encourage the child to ask for forgotten information where necessary Training in the use of memory aids Encouragement to continue with complex tasks rather than abandoning them

Question 42

How can tasks be broken down into separate steps?

Answer 42

External memory aids (e.g. useful spellings displayed on the board) Give them regular practice in the use of the aids in the context of simple activities with few WM demands. Increase access to useful spellings (on their desks) – this will prevent them from losing their place in the writing task

Question 43

How can WM demands be reduced for tasks that require both processing and storage of information?

Answer 43

For sentence writing, reduce the lexical complexity of the sentence (simplify vocabulary) Simplify the syntax of the sentence (e.g. encourage the child to use simple structures, such as active subject-verb-object) Reduce sentence length

Question 44

How can the teacher ensure that the child can remember what they are doing?

Answer 44

Use brief & simple instructions Frequent repetitions of instructions Ask the child to repeat instructions