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TB9 Flashcards

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1
Q

At what age do infants do an action in order to cause effects (Rochat 98)?

A

2mo

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2
Q

What example can be used to support the idea that infants are aware that their behaviour affects others?

A

Still face paradigm

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3
Q

When completing the rouge test, at what age to infants recognise themselves in the mirror?

A

15-18mo

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4
Q

What does the rouge test tell us about emotion?

A

It tells us that only people who can complete the rouge test display empathy and embarrassment.

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5
Q

Repacholi & Gopnick studied the self and theory of mind in terms of desires. What did they study and find?

A

They studied dinosaur crackers and broccoli and what food the child gave the experimenter after the experimenter had showed the child how he disliked crackers and loved broccoli. They found at 14mo they had no theory of mind, gave them crackers even when the experimenter disliked them yet at 18mo, had theory of mind and gave them broccoli.

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6
Q

Describe the two types of cultures

A 
Independent = individualistic, autonomous etc 
Interdependent = collectivist, community etc
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7
Q

How do we measure the categorical self?

A

The self other confusion paradigm - looks at things that are similar and people are more likely to confuse them.

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8
Q

When describing traits, which group did the infants get confused with?

A

In-group categories

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9
Q

How do cultures vary in images?

A

In the USA, children tended to draw themselves bigger with their immediate family whereas in Cameroon, children drew them smaller and drew more of the community.

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10
Q

How does parenting differ when comparing independent cultures and interdependent cultures?

A

Independent cultures = they have exclusive attention from their parents and are more likely to be praised by their parents when making an effort.
Interdependent cultures = they have the divided attention from their mothers and aren’t associated with them all the time. Likely to be asked more questions and receive little praise.

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11
Q

When completing the manikin challenge at 27mo, what was found?

A

They often struggled with the trunk and often got the arms and legs confused.

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12
Q

At what age was the tadpole stage and what was it?

A

3-4yo and was when infants draw limbs coming out of the head as they could not differentiate between heads and bodies.

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13
Q

Were children aware of body size at 20mo?

A

No - they tended to try and put dolls clothes on themselves.

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14
Q

What did Thompson find when investigating body satisfaction?

A

They found at the age of 9mo, almost all the children were unhappy with their body image.

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15
Q

What parental effects did body satisfaction have on infants?

A

If the parents spoke about body size in terms of physical health rather than weight control, they found that children were more positive about their bodies.

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16
Q

What is self esteem?

A

A persons evaluation of their own worth.

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17
Q

What are the five domains associated with self esteem?

A

Athletic competence, scholastic competence, social acceptance, physical appearance and behavioural conduct.

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18
Q

What is self efficacy?

A

A person’s evaluation of their ability in a particular domain.

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19
Q

Dweck investigated how children’s beliefs about own potential can be influenced by feedback from others. What mindsets were found?

A

Two mindsets; 1. fixed - when praise was given and could be negative
2. growth - when positive praise was given and these children tended to be more willing to tackle difficult tasks.

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20
Q

What are the two types of self preservation?

A

The public self vs the private self.

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21
Q

What are primary circular reactions?

A

When actions are repeated over and over

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22
Q

What are secondary circular reactions?

A

When infants understand their environment.

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23
Q

What is prosocial behaviour?

A

Behaviours that benefits someone else at the cost of the self.

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24
Q

How does pro sociality evolve?

A

Reciprocity - both direct and indirect.

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25
What are the three prosocial emotions?
Empathy, Sympathy and Guilt
26
How do children show empathy?
When they see another child, they are likely to cry. Whereas if they saw themselves crying, they wouldn't cry again.
27
What is sympathy?
Feeling concern for others.
28
What prosocial behaviours were coded when the infants' mothers were in distress?
Physical comfort, verbal comfort, verbal advice, helping and sharing
29
Under what circumstances were children more likely to sympathise with another person?
If they have previously observed someone being mean to them.
30
What is guilt?
Realisation that someone has hurt someone else - unpleasant experience.
31
What differences were found between 2yos and 3yos (Vanish 16)?
3yos were more likely to try and repair their damage when mishap was their fault yet 2yos were likely to help no matter what, it didn't matter if it was their fault.
32
How is pro-sociality encouraged?
It is encouraged through modelling of parents (Hammond 11) and scaffolding in everyday household chores (Rheingold 82)
33
What variety of mental state talk do parents use towards their infants?
simple affect (happy, sad), desires (want, need) and mental state (think, know).
34
When observing relational aggression, overt aggression and depression what did Crick find?
That when children were high in overt and relational aggression, they were low in prosocial behaviour and were rejected by their peers. Children high in negative emotions, were more likely to be depressed.
35
What is the hostile attribution bias?
Children expect others to be hostile, priming them to act aggressively.
36
What proportion of US TV contains violence?
66%
37
At what age can temperament predict antisocial behaviour in adolescence?
At 3yo
38
What is the effect of nutrition on antisocial behaviour?
Poor nutrition impacts brain structure and function, resulting in antisocial behaviour.
39
What food is necessary for reducing aggressive behaviour?
Fish
40
What is important in brain function?
Omega 3 found in fish
41
With the omega 3 intervention, what was the outcome?
They found that 6m after they had been given omega 3, they has reduced levels of antisocial behaviour.
42
What is morality?
It can be thought of in terms of judgement, behaviour and emotion.
43
What is moral behaviour?
Tendency to act on the distinction between right and wrong to bring the positive benefit to others.
44
What is moral judgement?
The ability to distinguish between right or wrong.
45
What is moral emotion?
The tendency to feel pride in virtuous conduct or shame over conduct that violates moral principles.
46
What did Piaget find, when investigating morality?
Four that younger children judge the negative outcome more harshly and older children tent to judge the negative intention more harshly.
47
What was Kohlbergs view of morality?
Found that there were six stages and as age increases, so did their complex thought processes.
48
What did Hamlin find when investigating moral judgement?
Found that young children preferred the nicer person and this shows that moral judgement is determined at a young age.
49
Which three traits did Caspi use to investigate?
Lack of control, approach and sluggishness.
50
What did Caspi find in the longitudinal study when looking at personality at a young age and the correlation when the child is older?
They found that children who showed lack of control in early childhood were more likely to exhibit antisocial behaviour in adolescence. Also, young children who had difficulties regulating emotion, showed antisocial behaviour in adolescence. Behaviours were consistent from 3yo onwards.
51
What were Kohlbergs six stages?
1. punishment orientation 2. rules are obeyed for personal gain 3. rules are obeyed for approval 4. rules are obeyed to maintain social order 5. rules are obeyed if they are impartial 6. the individual establishes their own rules.
52
When do children exhibit a moral judgement?
When they are very young as they prefer people who help rather than those who don't - Hamlin 07.
53
Which gender tends to be more aggressive?
Males
54
What are the three types of play?
1. sensorimotor play - repeatedly banging objects together 2. rough and tumble play - known as play fighting 3. pretend play
55
What does rough and tumble play benefit?
Pellegrini and Smith found that it helps dominance heiracy and helps determine strength.
56
What does rough and tumble play improve?
Solving a variety of social problems.
57
How common is pretend play?
In children ages 12-48mo they found 75% engage in pretend play.
58
How do parents influence pretend play?
When young, the parents engage in pretend play along with the child. They then provide encouragement through explicit suggestions and then when the children are older, they facilitate symbolic play.
59
What was the outcome of having pretend play training - Dockett 98?
Those children who had training has higher frequency and group pretense. Also improved performance on theory of mind tasks.
60
What is the definition of friendship?
A close association between two or more children.
61
What are the stages of friendship as the child gets older?
``` 6-8yo= common activities and living close 9-10yo= shared values and rules 11-12yo= self disclosure and shared interests ```
62
How do friends and non-friends differ - Hartup 96?
They looked at conflict resolution and found that with non-friends there was less effort in order to resolve the problems where as they wanted to sort things more quickly and amicably when they were in the friendship group.
63
What age are imaginary companions common?
3 and 8yo.
64
What are imaginary companions?
Children create imaginary people or animals in which ti play with, to avoid loneliness.
65
What proportion of children have imaginary friends?
65% of children.
66
What did Dodge find when looking at children joining play with other infants?
They found that popular children watched and then started to make group orientated statements. They found neglected children water and waited only and rejected children made disrupting comments and interrupted play.
67
What are the consequences of friendship?
Bagel found that those children neglected had poorer job aspiration and performance. Having friends boosted self esteem levels.
68
How common is ASD?
1 in 100 people develop autism.
69
What deficits to ASD suffers have?
They have poor social interaction and impairments in communication. They are unable to follow eye gaze and pay less attention to the eyes of others.
70
What is the effect of ASD on friendships?
56% of people with autism have no friends and they score lower on friendships.
71
What is the influence of ASD on false belief tasks?
They found that those with autism were unable to complete the Sally Anne Task. However, Hughes found that not all autistic people fail these tasks.
72
How do autistic people process information? How has this been proven?
Piecerne fashion rather than integrating it. This has been proven by visuo-spatial tasks.
73
At what age does language and pretend play begin?
2yo
74
What is put in place for children with a lack of sociodramatic play?
Play tutoring
75
What outcomes occur when a child has been rejected from a peer group?
Ladd found they spend less time in cooperative play and social conversation. They tend to be rated as more aggressive and tend to be more impulsive.
76
What did Parker and Asher find?
They found a link between low peer acceptance and dropping out of school early and committing juvenile crime.
77
What are the two ways in which people can identify their gender?
1. biological sex= physical anatomy of the reproductive system such as chromosomal differences and hormone levels. 2. Gender = social roles, behaviours and activities.
78
At what age are the two gender ages classified?
5mo after conception
79
At what age do children relate themselves to others with the same biological sex?
2yo
80
Where do gender typical behaviours come from?
1. reinforcement 2. imitation 3. norm reinforcement
81
When having to describe an image of a young child, what did they find?
They found that when the child was given a girls name like Beth, people tended to describe her as soft, nice and delicate and when they called him Adam, they called him strong, active and intelligent. They associated dolls with Beth and trucks with Adam.
82
Langois and Downs coded that fathers respond to their children. What did they find?
They found fathers responded more positive to their children when they engaged with stereotypical toys. They also found that boys were punished more harshly than girls for counter-stereotypical behaviour.
83
How does imitation affect gender stereotypes?
Hamilton found that in books, females had a more nurturing roles and were more likely to be seen in the household. This imitation is reflected in gender stereotypes.
84
What did Olsen find when investigating the thoughts of transgender people?
They found that both in self report and implicit measures, transgender children showed a clear indication that they thought of themselves in terms of their expressed gender.
85
What are the gender biases associated with females?
Females earn 70% of what males earn in the same job (Goldin). Moss and Ruskin found that females are less likely to be chosen for university positions even when the CVs are the same. Macneil found that when instructors were female, they rated the instructor as a poorer teacher.
86
What are the three types of bias?
1. stereotypes - children associate particular attributes with gender. 2. Prejudice - individuals have a negative attitude towards gender groups. 3. Discrimination - individuals are treated unequally on the basis of gender.
87
How are gender stereotypes affected by age?
Stereotypes increased with age and people are more likely to remember stereotypical effects rather than counter typical effects.
88
What is ambivalent sexism?
General positive evaluations of women stereotypes and more negative evaluations in particular contexts, such as within the workplace.
89
How can gender affect potential?
Children identify with groups of their gender and this may effect estimates of their own potential.
90
How does gender affect the jobs that someone does?
They gave a list of female jobs (fashion, model) and male jobs (doctor, banker, plumber) and female jobs were rated lower status and girls voted to do female jobs over male jobs.
91
What is the definition of racism?
Prejudice, stereotyping and discrimination based on perceived racial categories.
92
Is racism evident in young children?
No - when offered toys from both white mothers and black mothers, they accepted the toys no matter what the race.
93
When does racism begin? How has this been proven?
5yo. At 3yo as when choosing social companions, they tended to go for people that were the same gender as them - gender was more important yet at 5yo, they befriended people who were the same race.
94
What is the result of an implicit association test when studying racism?
Found that there was a same amount of race bias for 6yo, 10yo and adults.
95
What is xenophobia?
Prejudice against people from other countries coming to our country. It is connected to dehumanisation.
96
What is dehumanisation?
When we perceive our group as more human than another group.
97
How is dehumanisation affected with age?
5yos have no effect and do not prefer either group - they perceive them as equally human. Yet 6yos show dehumanisation as they prefer York faces rather than the faces that are from far away.
98
What tactics have been used to reduce in-group bias?
1. Contact and extended contact 2. Cooperation and supra ordinate goals 3. Behaviour training
99
What did Paluck do to investigate in-group bias?
Designed an intervention to encourage anti-conflict norms and behaviour amounts high school children. They found that after 5m of the intervention, peer trainers in treatment were more likely to be nominated by close friends and distant friends to confront prejudice in their school. This spread from them to their peers in standing up to gay rights and racism.
100
What was Freuds phallic stage?
Boys attention focuses on their mother and so they hate their father. This is known as the oedipus complex
101
What is the brain differences between heterosexuals and homosexuals?
The dimorphic nucleus is twice as big in heterosexual men rather than homosexual men.
102
How much aggressive TV do children watch everyday?
6.5H a day
103
How many killings are viewed by children by the age of 16?
13,000
104
What is the effect of viewing violence?
Either desensitisation or forming scripts
105
What were the three results found in the Husemann Paper?
1. The TV viewing in childhood predicted aggression at 15yo. 2. Even when controlling for parent variables and intellectual ability. 3. Men who were high TV violence viewers, were significantly more likely to have grabbed, pushed or shoved - same for females. 4. Pts who had higher identification with same sex aggressive characters in childhood, scored significantly higher on adult aggression.
106
What are the reasons behind why babies cry when others cry?
1. They show empathy 2. Find the sound of another infant crying aversive 3. They cannot distinguish between themselves crying and someone else crying
107
Infants cry when they hear another infant crying. Which has not been suggested an explanation for this result?
Infants cry in order to increase the chances other infant will be helped.

Development and Language (2 decks)

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