TEAS anatomy Flashcards

Question

allergies causes

Answer 1

both genes and environment

Answer 2

genetic and environmental

Answer 3

COPD, emphysema, mesothelioma, lung cancer

Answer 4

hepatic vein carries blue blood to the vena cava hepatic artery carries red blood to the liver hepatic portal vein carries deoxy blood from stomach and intestines to the liver, which is then carried back to the hepatic vein and then the vena cava

Answer 5

4 months ## Footnote platelets are 1 week

Answer 6

the archway for the pulmonary arteries before they split off into 4. carries deoxy blood. its sent to the lungs for oxygenation. vena cava also carries deoxy blood but its to the heart.

Answer 7

on the left side of the heart also bicuspid has to deal with increased back pressure from the aorta

Answer 8

on the right side of the heart

Answer 9

are present in BOTH the aortic valve and the pulmonary valve (the two big pumps moving blood away)

Answer 10

recieves blood from the body

Answer 11

recieves blood from the lungs

Answer 12

pulmonary and systemic pulmonary is low O2 to high O2, middle is lungs systemic is high O2 to low O2, middle is body

Answer 13

under both 120 and 80

Answer 14

salivary glands, parotid glands, sublingual glands, submandibular glands, mouth, tongue **pharynx**, esophagus, liver, gallbladder, stomach, spleen, pancreas SI LI anus

Answer 15

1 duodenum 2 jejunum 3 ileum

Answer 16

1. appendix 2. ascending colon 3. transverse colon 4. descending colon 5. sidmoid colon 6. rectum 7. anal canal 8. anus

Answer 17

In the digestive system, the one-way pathway through which food travels is called the alimentary canal. Mouth, esophagus, stomach, duogenum, large intestine, anus. mouth and stomach digest mechanically It does not include accessory organs.

Answer 18

does not include alimentary canal liver, salivary glands, gallbladder, pancreas

Answer 19

break down and absorb

Answer 20

proteins break down

Answer 21

carbs break down secreted by pancreas

Answer 22

saliva, stomach acid, liver enzymes, pancreas enzymes

Answer 23

secreted by pancreas

Answer 24

secreted by the pancreas

Answer 25

secreted by the liver and stored in the gallbladder for digestion breaks down fats

Answer 26

remove toxins metabolism digestion

Answer 27

CNS and PNS combined

Answer 28

100 million

Answer 29

base of skull, through vertebral column, ending between 1st and 2nd lumbar vertebrae

Answer 30

somatic and autonomic nervous systems includes the cranial and spinal nerves (not the spinal CORD)

Answer 31

afferent sensory signals arrives at the brain efferent signals exit the brain and go to the muscles interneurons go between

Answer 32

muscle fibers

Answer 33

found in blood vessels the eyes bladder, intestine, digestive, urinary, uterus uses peristalsis

Answer 34

During puberty, the testes respond to the release of FSH (follicle-stimulating hormone) and LH (luteinizing hormone) to begin the production of active sperm. testes also create testosterone for males

Answer 35

semen: testes-->epididymis --> ductus (vas) deferens --> ampulla --> ejaculatory duct seminal fluid: seminal vesicle-->ejaculatory duct prostate also leads to ejaculatory duct urethra: ejaculatory duct-->prosthatic urethra-->membranous urethra-->spongy urethra-->external urethral opening lubricate and prepare for urethral ejaculation by making things acidic to cancel out basic: bulbourethral gland--> spongy urethra Bulbosaur casts acid

Answer 36

During puberty, the ovaries respond to FSH and LH to begin releasing egg cells on a monthly basis. ovaries create eggs similar to how testes create sperm.

Answer 37

ties down the uterus to the pelvic muscle

Answer 38

ovary to uterus

Answer 39

estrogen, progesterone, luteinizing hormone (LH), and follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) regulate the menstural cycle

Answer 40

found in the brain and controls the release of FSH, LH, and oxytocin

Answer 41

produce estrogen and progesterone

Answer 42

top to bottom: stratum corneum, lucideum, granulosum, spinosum, basale Come, Lets Get Sun Burned

Answer 43

muscular tissue, follicles and hair roots, nerve endings, vessels, glands, and connective tissue

Answer 44

* acts as a barrier and protects the body from damage. * It also excretes waste substances, such as sweat * regulate body temperature * vitamin D synthesis * Sensory receptors for the detection of pain, pressure, and temperature * maintain homeostasis: narrow blood vessels in dermis to prevent heat loss and excrete sweat through glands to cool the body

Answer 45

Hypothalamus, pineal gland, pituitary

Answer 46

thymus, thyroid, parathyroid

Answer 47

adrenal, pancreas, ovaries, testes

Answer 48

catecholamines (dopamine, norepinepine, epineprine)

Answer 49

skin, lungs, rectum

Answer 50

adenoids, tonsil, thymus, lymph nodes, spleen, BM

Answer 51

occur before a pathogen can enter the bloodstream and include the skin, saliva, mucous membranes, hair, and stomach acid.

Answer 52

innate immune cells in the bloodstream

Answer 53

adaptive immune cells that target specific pathogens

Answer 54

skull, vertebral column, and rib cage

Answer 55

pelvis, shoulders, limbs

Answer 56

thin bones that protect organs and join other bones together, such as the skull and shoulder blades.

Answer 57

same width and length and offer limited mobility. The wrist and ankle bones are short bones.

Answer 58

small and round, and they are located in tendons to help strengthen joints that are often compressed, like the patella in the knee joint

Answer 59

unique shape, like the vertebrae, for example

Answer 60

Pivot joints, like the neck bones, allow back-and-forth rotation. Hinge will bend and straighten in one direction like the elbow.

Answer 61

in the wrists, allow back-and-forth and up-and-down motion.

Answer 62

The outer layer of bone and it has networks of arteries and veins running through it.

Answer 63

inner layer The holes and spaces in the spongy bone allow the bone to be strong without being as heavy as solid bone would be. It also allows room for the bone marrow, which produces red and white blood cells and platelets.

Answer 64

framework for the body itself, protect organs, produce red and white blood cells in the marrow, and store calcium, iron, and fat.

Answer 65

right kidney, liver, gallbladder, and small intestine

Answer 66

stomach, liver, adrenal glands, pancreas, spleen, small intestine

Answer 67

left kidney, spleen, pancreas, and colon

Answer 68

ascending colon, liver, gallbladder

Answer 69

small intestine, duodenum, umbilicus

Answer 70

descending colon, left kidney

Answer 71

cecum, appendix

Answer 72

bladder, female internal reproductive organs, sigmoid colon

Answer 73

descending and sigmoid colon

Answer 74

liver, stomach, pancreas, spleen, gallbladder, intestine and **kidney** | ventral body cavity

Answer 75

bladder, sex organ, large intestine's sigmoid colon and rectum ## Footnote ventral body cavity

Answer 76

## Footnote ventral body cavity

Answer 77

bove the diaphragm and contains the lungs and the mediastinum, which separates the cavity into a right and left compartment. The heart, trachea, esophagus, and thymus gland lie within the mediastinum. | ventral cavity

Answer 78

contains the brain and spinal cord, located on the dorsal side.

Answer 79

brain, the 12 cranial nerves, and the pituitary gland.The meninges (comprised of the dura mater, arachnoid mater, and pia mater) line the cavity and surround the brain and the spinal cord and contain CSF between the arachnoid mater and pia mater

Answer 80

1. pia mater is vascularized on the surface of brain and spinal cord 2. middle layer is arachnoid - not vascularized or nerves. just CT 3. vascularized dura mater most superficial and separates brain into compartments. (endosteal lines cranial bones, meningeal layer lines vertebral cavity)

Answer 81

vertebrae and spinal cord

Answer 82

respiratory is where actual gas exchange occurs

Answer 83

External respiration is the exchange of gas between the lungs and the blood. Internal respiration is the exchange of gas between the blood and tissues.

Answer 84

pH regulation of the blood, thermoregulation, odor detection, and the production of speech.

Answer 85

Each primary bronchus splits repeatedly into secondary bronchi, tertiary bronchi, and bronchioles to form the bronchial tree. The terminal bronchioles further divide into respiratory bronchioles, which are characterized by the presence of some alveoli. The respiratory bronchioles lead into alveolar ducts, which terminate in alveolar sacs.

Answer 86

type 1 squamous cells single layer lines the alevoli wall and they make up the majority. type 1 participates in gas exchange. type 2 cells are cuboidal that secrete surfactant to prevent alvoeli from collapsing. the alveolar walls are perforated in case of blocked ducts. there's also macrophages (lysosomes and cilia are located in upper respiratory tract)

Answer 87

the basement membrane fuses together to form the respiratory membrane

Answer 88

expiration is passive. inspiration is using negative pressure breathing by contracting the diaphragm

Answer 89

glucose + 6O2 --> 6CO2 + 6H20

Answer 90

most O2 binds to hemoglobin in RBCs. some dissolves in the blood. Most CO2 is in the form of bicarb. some dissolves in the blood but some can also bind to hemoglobin.

Answer 91

false. must use a carrier protein

Answer 92

hypothalamus is the thermometer

Answer 93

epicardium, which protects the heart and secretes lubricating serous fluid. The middle layer is the muscular myocardium, which contracts to pump blood. The innermost layer is the endocardium, which lines the chambers and valves.

Answer 94

* single layer of squamous endothelial cells that are connected by tight junctions and adherens junctions. This allows the endothelium to act as a selectively permeable barrier * The smoothness of the endothelium reduces friction between the blood and the vessel wall. * Endothelial cells also play a role in *vasoconstriction* by releasing peptides called endothelins that cause the smooth muscle within the vessel walls to contract. They also * secrete chemicals that inhibit the coagulation of blood, but if the endothelium is damaged, they release different chemicals required for clot formation.

Answer 95

SA generates (P, atrium contr), AV node (PR), bundle of His and bundle branches, Purkinje fibers (QRS and ventricles contr)

Answer 96

count the number of squares between cardiac cycles (P1 to P2) in sex seconds and multiply by 10

Answer 97

tunica intima (endothelial cells, elastic fibers) tunica media (smooth muscle, elastic)) tunica adventitia (outermost)

Answer 98

aorta, its major branches tunica media has most of the elastin

Answer 99

arteries that branch off elastic arteries. tunica media contains the most smooth muscle cells and least elastic fibers

Answer 100

right before capillaries tunic amedia is very thin but contains ONLY smooth muscle

Answer 101

Tiny vessels that exit the capillary beds. Thin, porous walls; few muscle cells and elastic fibers right after capillaries

Answer 102

Thin tunica media and tunica intima, wide lumen, valves prevent backflow of blood

Answer 103

the arterioles

Answer 104

the vena cava

Answer 105

turbulence occurs when high velocity encounters an obstruction or when the vessels take a sharp turn or narrow suddenly. laminar flow is the steady, streamlined flow of blood that occurs throughout most of the circulatory system.

Answer 106

epithelial cells and basement membrane

Answer 107

Gases and lipid-soluble substances can cross the endothelial cell membranes by simple diffusion, but ions and large particles often require the help of transport proteins or vesicular transport. Sometimes materials move through intercellular clefts: channels between adjacent endothelial cells.

Answer 108

Fenestrated capillaries have pores that increase their permeability and are found in the kidneys and small intestine.

Answer 109

Sinusoidal capillaries have a discontinuous endothelium that permits the passage of large particles and even blood cells. They are the most permeable of the capillaries.

Answer 110

55% plasma (albumin, antibodies, proteins, carbs, lipids, salts, waste, gases, hormones) 45% elements (RBC, WBC, platelets)

Answer 111

hematocrit is the percent of RBCs by volume 42 F 46 M

Answer 112

40 to 1 (platelets 40)

Answer 113

liver and kidneys

Answer 114

myeloid stem cells, erythroblasts, reticulocytes, erythrocytes | left is immature, right is mature

Answer 115

erythropoietin swims through to the red bone marrow

Answer 116

some ER no nuclei lose the ER after 1-2 days to form mature erythrocytes

Answer 117

120 d or 4 months, located in the spleen, liver, BM

Answer 118

four globin polypeptide chains and heme groups iron in the heme group

Answer 119

ferritin (iron) bilirubin (heme) --> bile excreted

Answer 120

black by basic stains

Answer 121

red by acid stain

Answer 122

pale lilac by neutral stains

Answer 123

myeloid progenator Myeloblast Promyelocyte Myelocyte Metamyelocyte - kidney shaped Band - drum stand shaped Segmented cells (2-5 joined lobes)

Answer 124

red/purple toludine blue

Answer 125

Myeloid progenitor Monoblast (12-20 mm) with large oval nucleus and lymphoid dendritic cells Promonocyte (from monoblast) Monocyte Macrophage and myeloid dendritic cell

Answer 126

Common lymphoid progenitor Lymphoblast (10-20 mm) with large round nucleus Prolymphocyte Small lymphocyte and natural killer cell B and T lymphocytes (from small lymphocyte)

Answer 127

faster. damaged tissue releases thromboplastin, which triggers a cascade of reactions that results in the production of an enzyme called prothrombin activator

Answer 128

When blood encounters a foreign substance or tissue, the Hageman factor (also called coagulation factor XII) is activated, leading to the production of prothrombin activator. From here, the clotting pathways are the same.

Answer 129

Prothrombin activator converts prothrombin to thrombin using calcium as a cofactor. Thrombin splits fibrinogen to form fibrin but also stimulates its own production (a positive feedback loop). Fibrin is a fibrous protein that forms a mesh-like network that traps more platelets and red blood cells. This forms a clot that seals the injured region of the blood vessel.

Answer 130

heme group consists of a single iron atom surrounded by a complex organic ring called protoporphyrin gives blood its red color

Answer 131

four polypeptide chains known as globin (two alpha chains and two beta chains) each chain has a heme group becomes oxyhemoglobin when oxygenated 4 iron atoms for 4 oxygen atoms CO2 can bind but not to iron (carbaminohemoglobin)

Answer 132

The parasympathetic division has the opposite effect. The vagus nerves that innervate the heart release acetylcholine (ACh), which slows the heart rate.

Answer 133

pH, CO2, and O2

Answer 134

swallowing

Answer 135

70% in bicarb 23% in hemoglobin rest is dissolved in the plasma

Answer 136

baroreceptors in the aortic arch and carotid arteries (both of which detect high blood pressure) and also the venae cavae, pulmonary veins, and atrial walls (all of which detect low blood pressure)

Answer 137

the voluntary buccal phase and the involuntary pharyngeal and esophageal phases.

Answer 138

three layers, except for the stomach which has two layers

Answer 139

radial contraction and then relax to propel in one direction happens during swallowing too from pharynx to esophagus its called peristalsis

Answer 140

non adjacent contractions to move food (chyme) back and fourth, and it only happens in the intestines in the HOUSE - houstral contractions in the large intestine to move from ONE HOUSE to the NEXT HOUSE

Answer 141

occur two to four times a day to push large amounts of chyme toward the rectum

Answer 142

gastroesophageal sphincter, pyloric sphincter, and anal sphincters

Answer 143

Amylase (carbs) Lipase (fats) Lysozymes & IgA (bacteria)

Answer 144

Bicarb Mucin (for gel that coats the bolus)

Answer 145

mucosa, submucosa, muscularis externa, adventitia Muscularis Externa on top 1/3 skeletal in middle mixed on bottom 1/3 smooth muscle

Answer 146

smooth muscle

Answer 147

superior and inferior

Answer 148

mechanical breakdown (3-4h) and storage of food digestions uses unique third muscularis externa layer (oblique) some chemical digestion after food mixed with gastric juice, its called chyme

Answer 149

its called mucosa, and forms rugae which allows expansion can hold 1 L typically but up to 4L

Answer 150

mucous cells, parietal cells, chief cells, and endocrine cells

Answer 151

G cells - release gastrin (hormone) into the blood and does not contribute to gastric juices

Answer 152

secrete intrinsic factor, to absorb vitamen B12 in the SI releases HCl (1-3 pH) acidic environment to activate pepsinogen needed by chief cells

Answer 153

secrete pepsinogen pepsin is the active form, requires HCl to activate breaks down proteins into peptide chains secrete gastric lipase

Answer 154

secrete bicarb esque mucous to protect the lining of stomach from acid

Answer 155

lower esophageal sphincter or cardioesophageal spincter

Answer 156

most superior section of stomach

Answer 157

serosa, muscularis externa (3 layers), mucosa muscularis external outermost is longitudinal, middle is circular, inner is oblique layer

Answer 158

proximal to esophageal opening, the part of the stomach that food first makes contact with

Answer 159

The pylorus is the inferior part of the stomach proximal to the duodenum. the widest part is the pyloric antrum. the narrowest part is the pyloric canal. pyloric sphincter is the valve

Answer 160

Made in the liver. bile salts made from cholesterol Emulsfying fats into micelles in stimach (fats then further broken down by lipase in SI) composed of bile salts, bilirubin, cholesterol, electrolytes. absorption of ADEK

Answer 161

gallbladder CCK triggered when food enters SI --> bile squeezed into common bile duct + pancreatic duct. then it becomes the hepatopancreatic ampulla of vater and spills into duodenum via duodenal papilla.

Answer 162

the liver recognizes it as a toxin. it is a waste product of amino acids. it gets conversted to urea. Urea travels to the kidneys to be excreted.

Answer 163

* insulin, glucagon, and somatostatin * digestive enzymes (amylase digests starch, lipase fats) * CCK (acinar cells) to release bile, secretin bicarb (duct cells) to lower pH * proteases in an inactive form (activated at the site of SI) - trypsin, carboxypeptidases A and B, chymotrypsin * Nucleases

Answer 164

embedded in microvilli of apical cells in GI (actin filaments that push out the GI to incr SA) | they come from both pancreas and the enzymes in the gut

Answer 165

jejunum and ileum

Answer 166

cotransport with sodium into the intestinal cells

Answer 167

cotransport with sodium into the intestinal cells

Answer 168

simple diffusion

Answer 169

simple diffusion

Answer 170

taken into intestinal cells, then diffuse into capillaries within the villi and travel to the liver

Answer 171

SI also where brush border enzymes are

Answer 172

Brunners neutralizes acid chyme so that enzymes don't denature

Answer 173

nucleotide

Answer 174

substrate oligosaccharides

Answer 175

Nucleotide

Answer 176

substrate oligosaccharide

Answer 177

main site for absorption long villi, dense microvilli

Answer 178

It is larger in diameter than the small intestine, but much shorter in length—averaging 1.5 meter There are no villi in the large intestine, but there are pouch-like sacculations called haustra that are separated by folds called plicae semilunares. These pouches are formed by the contraction of smooth muscle within the muscularis layer. The walls of the large intestine are lubricated by mucus, which is secreted by goblet cells.

Answer 179

no absorption, except for iron chemical digestion

Answer 180

longest of the SI, but narrowest Concentration of Peyer's Patches Absorb B12, bile salt, nutrients leftover terminates at the ileocecal valve

Answer 181

vitamin K, biotin, sodium ions, chloride ions, and water. By the time chyme reaches the large intestine, most of the water (approximately 80%) has already been absorbed by the small intestine. As the chyme is pushed through the colon 90% of the remaining liquid is absorbed, leaving a mass of indigestible food, water, and bacteria.

Answer 182

The bacteria also release vitamin K, biotin, thiamin, riboflavin, and vitamin B12. Vitamin K (required for the synthesis of clotting proteins) and biotin (a cofactor for many enzymes) are absorbed for use in the body. Resident gut flora also help to keep populations of pathogenic bacteria in check. The appendix may serve as a reservoir for beneficial species of bacteria, though it is often infected with harmful microbes.

Answer 183

larged in the large intestine, at the cecum

Answer 184

The anal canal is the last portion of the rectum, and it ends with an involuntary internal sphincter and a voluntary external sphincter.

Answer 185

A dilated region (superior to the anal canal) called the rectal ampulla functions as a storage area for feces before they are eliminated in the process of defecation.

Answer 186

bacteria, water, undigested material, epithelial cells, and bile (which accounts for the brown coloration).

Answer 187

As this material accumulates, the walls of the rectum expand and stretch receptors send signals that cause the rectal muscles to contract, the internal sphincter to relax, and the external sphincter to contract. At this point, the decision can be made to eliminate or delay elimination.

Answer 188

embedded in the connective tissue of the submucosa. It functions in regulating local secretions, absorption, contraction of submucosal muscle, and blood flow

Answer 189

located between the circular and longitudinal layers of the muscularis externa. This network exerts control over the motility of the GI tract. increases the tone, as well as the rate, intensity, and velocity of contractions.

Answer 190

Yes, it operates independently

Answer 191

sym - norepinephrine parasym - ach

Answer 192

* Meissner’s corpuscles, Merkel’s disks, Pacinian corpuscles, and Ruffini endings * muscle spindles that detect stretching of skeletal muscle * receptors of the inner ear that detect vibrations.

Answer 193

olfactory and taste receptors

Answer 194

detect pain

Answer 195

near the body surface transmit information about the external environment.

Answer 196

within the inner ear, skeletal muscles, and joints provide information about movement, position, and equilibrium.

Answer 197

two neuron pathways

Answer 198

of visceral organs and blood vessels provide information about internal stimuli.

Answer 199

quickly adapt to a constant stimulus, meaning that action potentials decrease over time and eventually stop. This explains the loss of sensation of clothes against the skin, or how an odor seems to disappear when the source is still present. Most tactile and chemoreceptors are phasic.

Answer 200

All motor neurons of the somatic division run directly from the CNS to the effector without synapsing with another neuron.

Answer 201

pituitary is the second stop, or most inferior

Answer 202

adapt slowly, constantly alerting the CNS of the stimulus with action potentials. Proprioceptors (receptors that provide feedback about position and movement of the body) are tonic receptors, as are photoreceptors (light-detecting receptors) and nociceptors (pain receptors).

Answer 203

change in sensitivity that occurs when receptors are exposed to a prolonged stimulus. phasic or tonic

Answer 204

medulla oblongata, cerebellum, and pons

Answer 205

integrates sensory signals and orchestrates responses to these signals.

Answer 206

cerebrum, thalamus, and hypothalamus

Answer 207

thin layer of** grey matter** covering the cerebrum. The brain is divided into two hemispheres, with each responsible for multiple functions. The brain is divided into four main lobes, the frontal lobe, the parietal lobe, the occipital lobe, and the temporal lobes.

Answer 208

located slightly toward the back of the brain and the top of the head and is responsible for sensory input as well as spatial positioning of the body

Answer 209

ocated at the back of the head just above the brain stem. This lobe is responsible for visual input, processing, and output; nerves from the eyes enter directly into this lobe.

Answer 210

all auditory input, processing, and output.

Answer 211

role in the processing and storing of implicit memories. Specifically, for those memories developed during classical conditioning learning techniques and any automatic responses.

Answer 212

midbrain, the pons, and the medulla oblongata are the three parts of the brain stem. respiratory, digestive, and circulatory functions

Answer 213

olfactory, optic, oculomotor, trochlear, trigeminal, abducens, facial, vestibulocochlear, glossopharyngeal, vagus, accessory, hypoglossal

Answer 214

comprised of the dura mater, arachnoid mater, and pia mater) line the cavity and surround the brain and the spinal cord and contain cerebrospinal fluid between the arachnoid mater and pia mater in the subarachnoid space. The meninges and cerebrospinal fluid protect and cushion the dorsal cavity.

Answer 215

Trigeminal, facial, glossopharyngeal, vagus

Answer 216

contains the brain, the 12 cranial nerves, and the pituitary gland.

Answer 217

oculomotor, trochlear, abducens, accessory, hypoglossal

Answer 218

oculomotor 3

Answer 219

trigeminal, 5

Answer 220

trigeminal

Answer 221

glossopharyngeal

Answer 222

glossopharyngeal (9), hypoglossal (12) and accessory (11), 10

Answer 223

glossopharyngeal

Answer 224

vagus (10)

Answer 225

hypoglossal, 12

Answer 226

olfactory, 1

Answer 227

exterior layer of white matter that surrounds an interior core of grey matter

Answer 228

vertebrae and spinal cord

Answer 229

Grey matter consists mostly of interneurons, but also contains motor neurons and glial cells. (The axons are mostly unmyelinated, giving the tissue its grey appearance.) The cell bodies of afferent neurons reside in dorsal root ganglia, just outside the spinal cord.

Answer 230

glial cells and myelinated bundles of axons that form tracts to and from the brain. * There are no cell bodies or dendrites in white matter.

Answer 231

Afferent fibers enter into the posterior/dorsal aspect of the spinal cord (a region called the posterior grey horn) through the anterior root, while efferent fibers exit on the anterior/ventral aspect (the anterior grey horn) through the posterior root.

Answer 232

Granular Nissl bodies (made of rough ER and clusters of free ribosomes) synthesize proteins for use within the cell.

Answer 233

the tail of the butterfly is the posterior side w/ the dorsal root ganglion on that side. the grey is on the inside, white is on the outside. the ends are called 'horns'.the white area superficial to it is the funiculus. anterior median sulcus is the crack in the front. posterior median sulcus is the buttcrack.

Answer 234

brain can override reflex interneurons

Answer 235

don't involve the brain can't stop the reflex from happening direct connection between sensory and motor

Answer 236

The hypothalamus produces oxytocin and antidiuretic hormone (ADH), but these hormones are stored in and secreted by the posterior pituitary.

Answer 237

myelin sheath of peripheral neurons they are a type of glial cells that form lipid rich layers the nucleus and cytoplasm is outside of the sheath Think won the race and you have to use arms and legs to win a race

Answer 238

centrioles in mature neurons. they can't divide

Answer 239

retina and inner ear

Answer 240

motor and interneurons

Answer 241

axon hillock

Answer 242

golgi, nissl, and ribosomes protein translation

Answer 243

axon splits and it allows neurons to interact with multple other cells

Answer 244

when the axons are super skinny

Answer 245

in the outer neurilemmal sheath of a schwann cell is where the nucleus and cytoplasm are. (neurons)

Answer 246

oligodendrocytes Think oligarch is the head. Oligarchs are OP they can work with multiple neurons.

Answer 247

they can myelinate tons of axons

Answer 248

MS leukodystrophies

Answer 249

mostly white in the CNS white in the CNS is myelinated grey matter is unmylinated

Answer 250

uninsulated gaps between myelinated portions of the axon

Answer 251

less neuroplasticity

Answer 252

yes | nearly all brain tumors come from them

Answer 253

glial cells

Answer 254

schwann, satellite

Answer 255

astro,micro,oligo, ependy

Answer 256

* most abundant * anchor * helps exchange of meterials between capillaries and neurons * uptake of excess ions

Answer 257

few extensions phagocytes - dead debris and immune

Answer 258

extensions wrap around axons of CNS neurons mylein sheath

Answer 259

epithelial lining of ventricles central canal of spinal cord CSF circulate between brain and spinal cord

Answer 260

produce myelin sheath that insulate PNS

Answer 261

terminate on the dendrite of a postsynaptic neuron

Answer 262

terminates on a POSTsynaptic soma

Answer 263

synapse that is rare. terminates on a POSTsynaptic axon.

Answer 264

chemical unidirectional and they use neurotransmitters

Answer 265

the bidirectional electrical synaptic junctions do not use neurotransmitters. they are linked only by gap junctions that allow the flow of ions between cells. -electrical synapses are rare, faster, always excitatory

Answer 266

stim skeletal muscle

Answer 267

mood and sleep

Answer 268

mood, attention, reward, and movement

Answer 269

promotes wakefulness in the hypothalamus

Answer 270

mostly inhibitory. sleep, mood, hunger, arousal

Answer 271

inhibitory NT

Answer 272

excitory NT

Answer 273

posture, eye movements

Answer 274

sk msk - large peripheral veins have valves that prevent backflow, and skeletal muscle pump forward thoracic- During inspiration, contraction of the diaphragm and intercostal muscles expands the thoracic cavity. The increased volume results in a decrease in pressure, which is transmitted to the right atrium. This drop in pressure helps the blood to return to the heart. when the pressure in the thoracic cavity decreases, the pressure in the abdominal cavity increases, squeezing the blood in the inferior vena cava toward the heart.

Answer 275

POSTERIOR hypothalamus

Answer 276

exothermic reaction releases energy in the form of heat to warm the body

Answer 277

These muscles are striated; the muscle fibers have alternating regions of light and dark bands. A single skeletal myocyte is cylinder- shaped and has many nuclei.

Answer 278

. Smooth muscle tissue is found in the walls of hollow organs and vessels and aids in the movement of substances such as food and blood. The cells are spindle-shaped, non-striated, and uninucleate.

Answer 279

exhibits myogenic activity. Cardiac muscle tissue is found in the walls of the heart and is required for the pumping of blood. The cells are branched, striated, and usually uninucleate (but may have two nuclei). They are connected to each other by intercalated discs with gap junctions that allow the cells to communicate.

Answer 280

tunnel-like invaginations of the sarcolemma, the plasma membrane of striated muscle cells

Answer 281

When an action potential propagates along the sarcolemma, the T-tubules help to depolarize the cell by carrying the impulse to the sarcoplasmic reticulum (SR)

Answer 282

sarcoplasmic reticulum (SR) surrounds the myofibrils in a muscle cell. The SR is a form of smooth endoplasmic reticulum that is specialized to store and release calcium ions.

Answer 283

t-tubules are sandwiched between two enlarged chambers of the SR called terminal cisternae. extension of the sarcolemma

Answer 284

ATP powered calcium pumps in the SR membrane pump calcium back into the SR to relax the muscle

Answer 285

The structure of the contractile apparatus is similar among striated muscle tissues and consists of a repeating unit

Answer 286

a unit within muscle tissue that is specialized for contraction

Answer 287

Tens of thousands of these sarcomeres lie end to end to form a myofibril.

Answer 288

boundary that seperates sarcomeres -point of anchorage for actin thin filaments.

Answer 289

The filaments themselves do not change length during contraction their arrangement allows them to slide over each other when myosin heads pull on the thin filaments, causing the sarcomeres to shorten and the muscle to contract.

Answer 290

while smooth muscle cells do contain actin and myosin, the filaments are disorganized, and no sarcomeres are present.

Answer 291

muscle fibers slow twitch oxidative

Answer 292

a blend of fast (II) and slow twitch (I)

Answer 293

type 1, slow twitch

Answer 294

1 = low intensity aerobic, or posture 2a= running 2b= short bursts of sprinting or heavy lifting

Answer 295

slow 1 = smallest fast 2a = intermediate fast 3 a= largest

Answer 296

1 = high 2a = moderate 2b = low

Answer 297

myoglobin binds oxygen. type 1 is for aerobic capacity, so it has the most myoglobin. myoglobin gives it a red color. type 2a is for anaerobic and aerobic. middle amount of myoglobin. pink color. 2b is anaerobic. least amount of myoglobin. white color.

Answer 298

type 1 = force production low, and slow velocity type 2a= moderate force production, rapid velocity type 2b= high force production, rapid velocity

Answer 299

high density type 1 mod density type 2a low density type 2b

Answer 300

SA, AV, bundle of his, his branches, perkinje fibers

Answer 301

As the impulse travels through the sarcolemma of a cardiac muscle cell, voltage- gated calcium ion channels open, allowing the entry of extracellular Ca2+ The inflow of Ca2+ triggers the release of even more Ca2+ from the sarcoplasmic reticulum. | cardiac cells have a prolonged AP compared to skeletal

Answer 302

Sympathetic stimulation increases heart rate, while parasympathetic stimulation (the vagus nerve) decreases heart rate. The endocrine system influences heart rate as well. Epinephrine secreted from the adrenal medulla and thyroxine from the thyroid gland both increase heart rate.

Answer 303

is the amount of oxygen required to restore metabolic conditions to resting levels. The amount of oxygen required to accomplish exercise, and to replenish the levels of ATP and creatine phosphate, is called oxygen debt.

Answer 304

Muscle activity is powered by the hydrolysis of ATP. In a resting state, aerobic respiration provides enough ATP for muscles to function. Stored ATP is quickly used up during intense exercise, and a molecule called creatine phosphate phosphorylates ADP to produce ATP

Answer 305

Anaerobic respiration also supplies ATP relatively quickly, but only for a short amount of time. If oxygen is available, aerobic respiration synthesizes ATP. When oxygen levels become depleted, lactic acid (a byproduct of anaerobic respiration) begins to accumulate.

Answer 306

The buildup of lactic acid, along with the depletion of ATP and oxygen, causes muscle fatigue. Lactic acid that does not remain in the muscles is brought to the liver, where it is converted into glucose. The amount of oxygen required to accomplish this task, and to replenish the levels of ATP and creatine phosphate, is called oxygen debt.

Answer 307

Postganglionic nerve fibers are shorter than presynaptic fibers, and they extend to the effectors

Answer 308

Preganglionic neurons of both the sympathetic and parasympathetic systems release acetylcholine (ACh)

Answer 309

Ach for parasympathetic, and NE for sympathetic

Answer 310

The sympathetic division induces a fight or flight response, which causes heart rate and blood pressure to increase, and blood to be diverted away from the digestive system.

Answer 311

The parasympathetic division induces a rest and digest response, which causes heart rate and blood pressure to decrease, and promotes digestion.

Answer 312

motor cortex initiates

Answer 313

The lower part of the brainstem called the medulla oblongata sends signals to involuntary muscles that play a role in digestion, vasodilation/vasoconstriction, heart rate, respiratory rate, and other visceral functions.

Answer 314

motor neurons communicated through the NMJ (neuromuscular junction)

Answer 315

A single motor neuron can form synapses with multiple muscle cells The neuron and the muscle cells that it innervates are collectively called a **motor unit**.This arrangement allows a large group of cells to contract together.

Answer 316

All the motor neurons that innervate the same muscle make up a motor pool

Answer 317

The epididymis is a convoluted tube attached to the outside of a testicle that nourishes sperm as they finish maturing, and stores them until ejaculation

Answer 318

When an action potential reaches an axon terminal, voltage-gated calcium ions in the membrane are opened, and Ca2+ enters. These ions bind to synaptic vesicles that store acetylcholine (ACh), causing them to fuse with the membrane and release ACh into the synaptic cleft. ACh binds to nicotinic receptors on a folded portion of the sarcolemma known as the motor end plate. The permeability of the muscle cell changes, and the cell depolarizes. The action potential is taken into the muscle cell via T-tubules, causing calcium channels in the sarcoplasmic reticulum to open. The release of calcium into the sarcoplasm causes the muscle to contract. | see page 144

Answer 319

The ovaries produce much higher levels of estrogen than male gonads. They contain all of the oocytes that they will ever have before birth, and only one is released per month during ovulation.

Answer 320

sperm duct from epididymis | heads to the ejaculatory duct then urethra

Answer 321

secrete fluid into the ejaculatory duct that makes up roughly 60% of the volume of semen. The contents of this mildly alkaline fluid include fructose, prostaglandins, and proteins

Answer 322

Secretions of the prostate gland (about 30% of semen volume) nourish the sperm and increase their motility.

Answer 323

lubrication 2-5% of semen volume

Answer 324

a pair of corpora cavernosa and the corpus spongiosum that surrounds the urethra a cavern is created by two walls or two corpora cavernosa

Answer 325

the sac that protects the sperm-producing testes and keeps them at the proper temperature

Answer 326

ovaries produce oocytes, and also secrete sex hormones. When an oocyte is released during ovulation, it is “captured” by the fallopian tube, also known as the uterine tube or oviduct, which is not directly connected to the ovaries. Fertilization typically occurs in the fallopian tube, and implantation of the fertilized egg usually occurs in the endometrium of the uterus.

Answer 327

fibrous layer of connective tissue surrounding the testes.Thin layers of tissue extend from the tunica albuginea and divide the testes into 250 to 300 compartments called lobules. Each lobule contains one to four seminiferous tubules, the sites of spermatogenesis

Answer 328

Bartholin’s glands produce a fluid that lubricates the vagina

Answer 329

peritoneal ligaments

Answer 330

epithelial lining of these tubules consists of the spermatogenic cells that give rise to sperm, as well as the cells that nourish them (sustentacular cells, also called **Sertoli** cells). Interstitial cells (**Leydig** cells) around the seminiferous tubules produce testosterone, which stimulates the production of sperm.

Answer 331

The seminiferous tubules join together to form a network of channels called the **rete testis**. Rete Testis bring maturing sperm cells to the efferent ducts where they exit the testes and enter the epididymis

Answer 332

germinal epithelium (cuboidal, simple), superior tuniva albuginea (inferior) cortex and medulla

Answer 333

granular appearance due to the presence of thousands of nourishing follicles in various stages of development. Each of these saclike follicles contains an oocyte.

Answer 334

Initially, the oocyte is surrounded by a single layer of follicular cells, but as the follicle matures, the cells give rise to a multi-layer of estrogen-producing granulosa cells. After ovulation, a gland called the corpus luteum forms, and it secretes progesterone and small amounts of estrogen. This gland disappears unless pregnancy occurs. | happens in the cortex of the ovary

Answer 335

The interior of the ovary, or medulla, is made of loose areolar connective tissue, and contains many blood vessels, lymphatic vessels, and nerves that enter and leave through the hilum.

Answer 336

Wolffian ducts give rise to male internal reproductive structures, and Mullerian ducts give rise to female internal reproductive structures. As one system develops, the other is broken down. ## Footnote women go to the mall, men are wolves

Answer 337

7 weeks after conception

Answer 338

. At puberty, there is a surge in development as the hypothalamus releases gonadotropin releasing hormone (GnRH). This triggers the secretion of luteinizing hormone (LH) and follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) from the **anterior** pituitary gland.These gonadotropins increase the production of sex hormones, which allow the male and female reproductive organs to mature.

Answer 339

Spermatogenesis begins in males, and ovulation and menstruation begin in females. Secondary sex characteristics emerge as well. Males develop facial, axillary, and pubic hair, and the voice deepens as the larynx grows. Females develop pubic hair, begin to ovulate and menstruate, and develop wider hips.

Answer 340

follicular phase, ovulation, luteal phase

Answer 341

During the follicular phase, FSH stimulates the maturation of the follicle, which then secretes estrogen. Estrogen helps to regenerate the uterine lining that was shed during menstruation.

Answer 342

Ovulation, the release of a secondary oocyte from the ovary, is induced by a surge in LH.

Answer 343

The luteal phase begins with the formation of the corpus luteum from the remnants of the follicle. The corpus luteum secretes progesterone and estrogen, which inhibit FSH and LH. Progesterone also maintains the thickness of the endometrium. Without the implantation of a fertilized egg, the corpus luteum begins to regress, and the levels of estrogen and progesterone drop. FSH and LH are no longer inhibited, and the cycle renews.

Answer 344

the proliferative phase, secretory phase, and menstrual phase.

Answer 345

regeneration of the uterine lining

Answer 346

endometrium becomes increasingly vascular, and nutrients are secreted to prepare for implantation

Answer 347

Without implantation, the endometrium is shed during menstruation.

Answer 348

Pregnancy: When a **blastocyst** implants in the uterine lining, it **releases hCG.** This hormone prevents the corpus luteum from degrading, and it continues to produce estrogen and progesterone. These hormones are necessary to maintain the uterine lining. By the second trimester, the **placenta secretes enough of its own estrogen and progesterone** to sustain pregnancy. The levels of estrogen continue to increase throughout pregnancy, while progesterone decreases.

Answer 349

first, **increased levels of fetal glucocorticoids**, which act on the placenta to **increase estrogen and decrease progesterone. ** second, **stretching of the cervix** stimulates the release of oxytocin from the posterior pituitary gland. Oxytocin and estrogen stimulate the release of prostaglandins, and **prostaglandins and oxytocin increase uterine contractions**. This positive feedback mechanism results in the birth of the fetus.

Answer 350

During pregnancy, levels of the hormone **prolactin increase**, but its effect on the **mammary glands** is inhibited by estrogen and progesterone. After parturition, the levels of these hormones decrease, and prolactin is able to stimulate the production of milk. Suckling stimulates the release of oxytocin, which results in the ejection of milk.

Answer 351

stratum corneum, lucium, granulosum, spinosum, basale dont forget basement membrane

Answer 352

keratinocytes. they are the stem cells. cells differentiate more towards the surface. usually contains just a single layer of cuboidal or columnar cells that adhere to the basement membrane. These are the most nourished cells because they are closest to the capillaries of the dermis.

Answer 353

8-10 layers of spiny cells connected by desmosomes There is limited mitotic activity in the deeper portion of this layer.

Answer 354

The stratum granulosum consists of two to five layers of slightly flattened cells containing granules of keratohyalin. The cells in the superficial portion of this layer lose their nuclei.

Answer 355

The stratum lucidum consists of two to five layers of dead, flattened keratinocytes and is only present in the palms and the soles of feet. These cells contain eleidin, a translucent, water-resistant protein derived from keratohyalin.

Answer 356

most superficial layer, and it consists of 15 to 30 layers of dead, keratin-containing squamous cells. This layer helps to prevent water loss from the body.

Answer 357

MC epidermis cell type. arise from stratum basale. they flatten and die as they move superiorly. produce keratin, which hardens the cell to create water resistance.

Answer 358

produce melanin, a pigment that gives skin its color and protects against UV radiation.

Answer 359

cutaneous receptors detect light touch. located in stratum basale. markers must use light touch or you get ugly marker blobs

Answer 360

secrete collagen, elastin, ECM

Answer 361

using eccrine glands, reabsorb sodium ions before losing it through perspiration

Answer 362

antigen presenting cells of the immune system (phagocytes). MC stratum spinosum

Answer 363

antigen presenting cells play a role in the inflammatory response produce histamine

Answer 364

urea and ammonia through sweat

Answer 365

anchor skin to underlying organs

Answer 366

phagocytitc cells engulf pathogens

Answer 367

1st line is the skin 2nd line is macrophages and immune system

Answer 368

smooth type muscle in the dermis

Answer 369

eccrine and apocrine

Answer 370

lies deeper in the dermis and empty onto hair follicles play NO role in thermoregulation (Apocrine is Aimless) activate at onset of puberty in response to sex hormones found only in certain places of the body

Answer 371

loose connective tissue esp. adipose to protect from heat and cold

Answer 372

hypodermis considered seperate from skin

Answer 373

radiation primarily. conduction and convection can also cool the body, assuming temp in environment is c ooler

Answer 374

adrenal medulla releases NOR and EPI which causes vasoconstrict

Answer 375

lies more superficial in the dermis, and drumps onto the skin directly. found everywhere help in thermoregulation release of sweat regulated by the hypothalamus men>women

Answer 376

dense plates of hardened keratinocytes that protect the distal ends of fingers and toes grows from nail matrix

Answer 377

the stratum basale responds by increasing the rate of mitosis, which soon leads to an overdevelopment of the stratum corneum (hyperkeratosis). The buildup of dead cells forms a protective pad called a callus.

Answer 378

pressure, but nothing else

Answer 379

protected by keratin filled celled of epidermis but cells in stratum corneum are sloughed off. in place of the sloughed off cells, keratinocytes and glycolipids glue together to form a seal.

Answer 380

shield from UV, cushioning, insulation trap foreign particles sensory receptors in response to injury

Answer 381

"acid mantle" secretions of sweat and sebacious glands mix together to form low pH & enzymes to help prevent infections also the good bacteria living on the surface can outcompete the bad bacteria deep in the layers of the skin are dendritic cells to phagocytize

Answer 382

Only cells with receptors that are specific to the secreted hormones are affected. This specificity allows hormones to control targeted tissues and organs, often other endocrine glands (these are called tropic hormones).

Answer 383

hypothalamus, pineal gland, pituitary gland, thyroid, parathyroid glands, thymus, adrenal glands, gonads, and pancreas. Certain cells within the heart, kidneys, gastrointestinal tract, and placenta also have endocrine functions.

Answer 384

stimulates anterior pituitary to release LH and FSH

Answer 385

exocrine glands release non- hormone products such as sweat, oil, tears, and bile through ducts to their target locations—usually a cavity or epithelial surface inside or outside the body. Unlike hormones, exocrine products do not bind to receptors.

Answer 386

the link between the nervous system and the endocrine system. It is located in the brain, **superior** to the pituitary and inferior to the thalamus. The hypothalamus communicates with the pituitary by secreting “releasing hormones” (RH) and “inhibiting hormones” (IH)

Answer 387

Hormones are molecules that bind to receptors and deliver regulatory messages. Many of these signaling molecules are steroids derived from cholesterol. These include the sex hormones and corticosteroids. The rest are non-steroids and include amines, peptides, and proteins.

Answer 388

thyrotropin releasing hormone stimulates TSH

Answer 389

melanocyte

Answer 390

release oxytocin where its also stored, vasopressin, ADH (stored) | prolactin is produced in anterior pituitary, not posterior oxytocin squi

Answer 391

“master gland” located within the sella turcica of the sphenoid bone, beneath the hypothalamus. This pea-sized gland hangs from a thin stalk called the infundibulum, and it consists of an anterior and posterior lobe, each with a different function.

Answer 392

Targets the gonads—stimulates the production of sex hormones; surge stimulates ovulation in females

Answer 393

Targets the gonads—stimulates the maturation of sperm cells and ovarian follicles

Answer 394

situated between the two hemisepheres of the brain where the two halves of the thalamus join secretes melatonin

Answer 395

attachment between the two lobes is called the **isthmus**. The isthmus is on the anterior portion of the trachea, with the lobes wrapping partially around the trachea

Answer 396

triiodothyronine cell metabolism

Answer 397

lowers blood calcium

Answer 398

thyroxine cell metabolism

Answer 399

Located between the sternum and the heart, embedded in the mediastinum. It slowly decreases in size after puberty. releases Thymosin; Targets lymphatic tissues— stimulates the production of T- cells

Answer 400

targets bone and kidney - raises blood calcium

Answer 401

The head of the pancreas is situated in the curve of the duodenum and the tail points toward the left side of the body. The pancreas is mostly posterior to the stomach.

Answer 402

Targets the liver, muscle, and adipose tissue—decreases blood glucose

Answer 403

GHIH - somatostatin. inhibits secretion of insulin and glucagon

Answer 404

Targets the stomach—stimulates the release of HCl

Answer 405

targets the liver - increases blood glucose

Answer 406

inner part of the gland targets blood vessels, liver, and lungs—increase heart rate, increase blood sugar (fight or flight response)

Answer 407

Targets the pancreas and liver— stimulates the release of digestive enzymes and bile

Answer 408

Targets the intestines—increases the reabsorption of Ca2+ released by the kidneys

Answer 409

Targets the pancreas and liver— stimulates the release of digestive enzymes and bile

Answer 410

Targets the brain—suppresses appetite

Answer 411

atrial natriretic peptide; Targets the kidneys and adrenal cortex— reduces reabsorption of Na+, lowers blood pressure

Answer 412

estrogen, progesterone, inhibin

Answer 413

targets anterior pituitary inhibits the release of FSH

Answer 414

Targets mainly the uterus and mammary glands—stimulates uterine lining growth, regulates menstrual cycle, required for maintenance of pregnancy

Answer 415

Estrogen, progesterone, inhibin and hCG

Answer 416

Targets the uterus, ovaries, mammary glands, brain, and other tissues—stimulates uterine lining growth, regulates menstrual cycle, facilitates the development of secondary sex characteristics

Answer 417

Targets the ovaries—stimulates the production of estrogen and progesterone

Answer 418

Targets the testes and many other tissues— promotes spermatogenesis, secondary sex characteristics testosterone inhibit targets anterior pituitary, inhibin

Answer 419

Hormones can be broadly classified into lipid-soluble hormones (steroids) and water-soluble hormones (non-steroids).

Answer 420

* Steroid hormones are derived from cholesterol, and their base structure consists of four fused carbon rings. * They are released by the adrenal cortex, testes, ovaries, and the placenta. * Major types of steroid hormones include the sex hormones (estrogens, androgens, progesterone) and the corticosteroids (glucocorticoids and mineralocorticoids). * Since these * hormones are lipid-soluble, they can diffuse through the cell membrane and bind to the nuclear receptors that regulate transcription.

Answer 421

Non-steroid hormones tend to elicit faster responses than steroid hormones. They cannot diffuse into the cell and instead bind to receptors on the cell membrane, activating second-messenger systems. classified into amines, peptides, and proteins.

Answer 422

Amines are derivatives of the amino acids tyrosine or tryptophan, and include epinephrine, norepinephrine, thyroxine, and melatonin.

Answer 423

Peptide hormones are short chains of amino acids. Common examples include oxytocin, somatostatin, and antidiuretic hormone.

Answer 424

Protein hormones such as insulin, growth hormone, and parathyroid hormone consist of longer chains—generally over 100 amino acids.

Answer 425

Hormones can also be glycoproteins. Follicle-stimulating hormone, thyroid-stimulating hormone, and luteinizing hormone all have carbohydrate attachments. FSH TSH LH

Answer 426

renal fascia, the adipose capsule, and the innermost renal capsul

Answer 427

most inferior surrounds the renal cortex

Answer 428

renal cortex tubules dip into the medulla

Answer 429

what happens in the renal cortex nonspecific filtration of blood under high pressure. It is also responsible for the majority of the reabsorption of water.

Answer 430

BV and nerves

Answer 431

ball of capillaries inbetween the renal artery and vein

Answer 432

renal corpuscles, convuluted tubules cortical labryrinth

Answer 433

loop of henle

Answer 434

The thick, straight portions of the proximal and distal tubules, as well as the collecting ducts

Answer 435

it passes through a renal papilla at the apex of the upside down pyramid, then it moves through calyces (ducts) to the renal pelvis.

Answer 436

filters the blood. has bowwman's capsule wrapped around a glomerulus. | glomerulus is the tangled clump of capillaries

Answer 437

About **85%** of nephrons (cortical nephrons) have short loops of Henle that extend **only slightly into the medulla**. The remaining **15%** (juxtamedullary nephrons) have **longer** loops that extend deeper.

Answer 438

no! the nephron is considered seperate.

Answer 439

collects and concentrates filtrate continuous with bowman's capsule. diff regions that differ in structure and function

Answer 440

fenestrated capillariesare lined with a thin layer of epithelial cells

Answer 441

Mesangial cells contract to regulate blood flow, and also support the capillary network.

Answer 442

Gaps between the pedicels (filtration slits) allow the passage of tiny molecules and ions.

Answer 443

the endothelial cells of the capillaries, the basement membrane, and the pedicels

Answer 444

The proximal convoluted tubule extends from Bowman’s capsule, and this coiled tube is characterized by cuboidal cells with dense microvilli that aid in reabsorption and secretion. There are only sparse microvilli in the rest of the tubule.

Answer 445

high, and it helps reabsorb water (loop of henle)

Answer 446

outer layer of epithelial cells that form the parietal layer, and it has a visceral layer of podocytes with processes called pedicels that wrap around the capillaries.

Answer 447

the cavity between the two layers of bowman's capsule fluid from the blood leaves the fenestrated capillaries and passes through the filtration membrane and collects in Bowman’s space the final place fluid goes before entering the renal tubule

Answer 448

The ascending limb widens into a thick portion composed of larger epithelial cells. The loop is lined with simple squamous epithelial cells, with the exception of the thick ascending limb which is lined with simple cuboidal cells.

Answer 449

1. descending limb (which reabsorbs **water**) that plunges into the medulla, a U-turn that curves back toward the cortex, 2. ascending limb (which reabsorbs **ions**)

Answer 450

cuboidal cells, which is involved in absorption and secretion, but not to the extent of the proximal convoluted tubule. It is also shorter in length.

Answer 451

The collecting duct is the final site of reabsorption in the kidney, and it is shared by multiple nephrons The distal tubule empties filtrate into the collecting TUBULE, which merges with other collecting tubules to form the collecting DUCT

Answer 452

1. Collecting tubules are lined with simple cuboidal epithelium, but these cells elongate to form columnar cells as they get closer to the duct. 2. Some of these cells are principal cells, which reabsorb sodium ions and water (under ADH and aldosterone control). 3. Other cells are intercalated cells, and they play an important role in acid-base balance and the reabsorption of sodium ions. Both these types of cells can also be found toward the end part of the distal tubule, but there are fewer microvilli than in the collecting duct.

Answer 453

The filtrate that passes through the collecting duct enters the minor calyces at the apex of a medullary pyramid.

Answer 454

nonspecific filtration is driven by the hydrostatic pressure of the blood. This pressure is higher than in other capillaries because the efferent arterioles that exit the glomerulus have a smaller diameter than the afferent arterioles that enter.

Answer 455

Water and small solutes from the blood are forced through fenestrations in the capillaries, leaving behind larger in the filtrate

Answer 456

primary active transport, secondary active transport, or diffusion, and water is reabsorbed by osmosis.

Answer 457

The first layer is the endothelial lining of the capillaries. Fenestrations in the capillaries prevent the passage of blood cells. The second layer is the basement membrane, which excludes plasma proteins such as albumin. The third layer is the visceral lining of Bowman’s capsule. Small filtration slits between the podocytes allow only the smallest of particles to pass.

Answer 458

The concentration of a solute in the glomerular **filtrate** is the same as the concentration in the **blood**. on average, about 1/5 of the blood is filtered, but this varies depending on the pressure.

Answer 459

1. secretion: for H+, creatinine, NH4, drugs, toxins, all active transport! 2. reabsorption: 60-70% of the volume of all filtrate. glucose, aa, vitamins, Na, cl, k, ca, mg, hco, phosphate, water, urea

Answer 460

secretion: urea reabsorption: water

Answer 461

secretion: K, H reabsorb: Cl, Ca, Na, Water (no mg, no k) but water is variable permeability; depends on aldosterone

Answer 462

secretion: K, H reabsorb: urea, bicarb, na, water water is variable and depends on aldosterone and ADH

Answer 463

secretes none reabsorption: na, cl, k mg, ca (not water)

Answer 464

the use of active transport to move solutes out of the ascending loop of Henle (which is impermeable to water) into the medullary interstitium. The osmotic gradient that is created causes water to diffuse out of the descending limb (which is permeable to water), concentrating the filtrate. The recycling of urea also helps to maintain a high medullary osmolarity. The descending loop of Henle and the collecting duct are both permeable to urea, but the descending limb and the distal tubule are not. Urea enters the descending loop from the interstitium, and travels through the renal tubule to the collecting duct, where it reenters the interstitium.

Answer 465

urine becoems more concentrated because water goes into the blood instead of the urine

Answer 466

peristalsis and gravity

Answer 467

ureters, bladder, and sup. portion of the urethra it allows expansion

Answer 468

1. countercurrent multiplier: occurs in the loop of henle- creating osmotic gradient in medulla to reabsorb water. 2. countercurrent exchange: occurs in the vasa recta- maintains osmotic gradient through opposite blood flow in hairpin vasa recta shape. going down, the blood picks up ions. going up, the blood leaves ions. this preserves the medullary osmolarity without created a new gradient, since the solutes are taken but then put back.

Answer 469

parasympathetic stretch receptors send signal to sacral cord

Answer 470

A circular smooth muscle called the internal urethral sphincter relaxes, and (if the timing is appropriate) the voluntary external urethral sphincter relaxes as well. Urine flows from the bladder, through the urethra, and out of the body in a process called micturition.

Answer 471

between the bladder and the urethra

Answer 472

its made of smooth muscle and its continuous with the detrusor muscle. The sympathetic nervous system keeps the IUS contracted until the micturition reflex is triggered. The IUS relaxes as a result of sympathetic inhibition, allowing urine to pass through

Answer 473

made of skeletal muscle and under the control of the somatic nervous system. A conscious decision can be made to relax the EUS under appropriate circumstances. Involuntary contraction of the detrusor forces urine out of the body, and the voluntary contraction of abdominal muscles can increase the rate of flow by compressing the bladder.

Answer 474

When granular juxtaglomerular cells of the **afferent** arterioles of the kidneys detect a drop in blood pressure, they secrete an enzyme called renin. Renin interacts with a plasma protein called angiotensinogen, producing angiotensin I. As angiotensin I enters the capillaries of the **lungs**, it is acted on by another enzyme that converts it to angiotensin II. This hormone raises blood pressure by promoting vasoconstriction and stimulating the **adrenal cortex** to release aldosterone. Aldosterone increases the reabsorption of sodium, which increases water reabsorption, causing the blood volume and pressure to increase.

Answer 475

it will go up, because concentration of ions is higher

Answer 476

When **osmoreceptors in the hypothalamus** detect an increase in osmolality, signals are sent to the pituitary gland to release ADH. ADH causes the collecting ducts in the kidneys to be more permeable to water, and water crosses the epithelium from the urine into the interstitium where it is returned to the blood. As a result, the blood osmolality decreases, and urine osmolality increases.

Answer 477

CO2 + H20 = H2CO3 = HCO3 + H

Answer 478

ammonia, urea, uric acid, creatinine

Answer 479

toxic base from aa breakdown converted to urea by liver

Answer 480

concentration of urea in the medulla which promotes reabsorption of water reabsorbed in the descending loop of henle

Answer 481

byproduct of the catabolism of purine nucleotides, and most of it is reabsorbed in the proximal tubule by active transport. Like urea, only a small percentage is excreted

Answer 482

Creatinine is produced in the muscles as a byproduct of the metabolism of creatine phosphate. It is filtered by the kidneys and excreted. Unlike urea and uric acid, creatinine is not reabsorbed by the tubules.

Answer 483

nonspecific, innate immune system

Answer 484

low pH of gastric juice, interferons that block viral replication, lysozyme in tears, and other antimicrobial proteins such as defensins, collectins, and complements.

Answer 485

skin and mucous membranes (mechanical)

Answer 486

Regulatory (suppressor) T cells inhibit T and B cells to stop the immune response.

Answer 487

site for T cell DIFFERENTIATION

Answer 488

hematopoietic stem cells that ive rise to ALL WBC and RBC but site of DIFFERENTIATION for B cells

Answer 489

Mucosa-associated lymphoid tissue refers to the small clusters of lymphatic cells that are found in the **tonsils, appendix, and Peyer's patches of the small intestine.** T cells, B cells, and macrophages provide protection against pathogens.

Answer 490

Splenic cords of the **red pulp** contain an abundance of **macrophages and lymphocytes** that help to filter aged blood cells, pathogens, and debris from the blood. The **white pulp **is a lymphatic tissue that consists almost entirely of **B and T cells**, and it provides a place for these lymphocytes to proliferate.

Answer 491

1. Provide a place for lymphocytes and other WBCs to proliferate (cortex contains B cells and macrophages, medulla contains T cells). 2. Filter the lymph of microorganisms, toxins, and wastes. 3. B cells produce antibodies that assist in the immune response.

Answer 492

adenoids (in face), tonsils, lymph nodes, R lymphatic duct entering vein, spleen, BM, lymph vessel, thymus

Answer 493

Lymph is a clear liquid similar in composition to plasma. It is transported in one direction (toward the neck) where it is emptied into the subclavian veins. Lymph consists of white blood cells and the fluid that leaks out of the blood capillaries.

Answer 494

Lymphatic vessels are similar in structure to veins; they have thin walls, and also have valves to prevent backflow. Their walls are more porous, however, allowing the lymph to drain into them for circulation lymph moves by contraction of muscle

Answer 495

lymphocytes are there to filter out foreign substances

Answer 496

The primary organs of the lymphatic system (bone marrow and thymus) produce mature lymphocytes. There are also secondary organs (such as the spleen and tonsils) that house lymphocytes.

Answer 497

1. pathogens **agglutinate** (clump together) before being destroyed. 2. Antibodies can also **neutralize** the antigen by blocking its ability to attach to cells 3. or cause it to become insoluble and **precipitate** out of solution. 4 Sometimes, they activate **complement**—a system of proteins that enhances the effectiveness of the immune response. 5 Other cells of the immune system can be called to action, and phagocytosis can be enhanced in a process called **opsonization**. 6 Antibodies also promote **inflammation** to help slow the spread of infection.

Answer 498

key function of the immune system. Greater hydrostatic pressure in the blood vessels (as compared to the interstitial fluid) causes fluid to leak out of the vessels into the surrounding tissues. Porous lymphatic capillaries collect excess interstitial fluid (now called lymph) for delivery to the right and left subclavian veins. As it travels through the lymphatic system, the lymph passes through lymph nodes where it is filtered and cleansed. Eventually, it reaches either the right lymphatic duct (which drains into the right subclavian vein) or the thoracic duct (which drains into the left subclavian vein), returning fluid back into the blood. If pressure is too great in the lymphatic vessels, edema will occur as fluid leaks back into the tissues.

Answer 499

The villi of the small intestine harbor specialized lymph capillaries called lacteals that absorb fats. These fats are transported in the form of chylomicrons, which give the lymph (called chyle) a whitish appearance.

Answer 500

the left subclavian vein

Answer 501

right subclavian

TEAS anatomy Flashcards

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