term test 3 Flashcards
(223 cards)
1
Q
what is memory?
A
Memory is the retention of information over time, it is made up and it is what we interpret. It has three important processes which are encoding, storage, and retrieval/forgetting. It can be visual, auditory, or tactile but it can not be smell or taste, it involves multiple systems such as the conscious and automatic systems, our conscious is the CEO so it does not control much.
2
Q
Confabulation
A
It is when we make up information that we think is true, this happens because our memory is not 100% true, all our memories contain confabulated information, our memory has gaps and we fill these gaps with our schema and logic.
3
Q
Memory encoding
A
it is a process by which information goes into memory storage. we have to pay attention to encoding information, our attention is a limited resource, and our ability to control it can be taken away from distractions.
4
Q
what does encoding include
A
attention, sensory detection, recognition of meaning, and response selection
5
Q
divided attention
A
concentrating on more than one activity at the same time such as listening to music and reading, which can be detrimental to the encoding process
6
Q
sustained attention
A
is being able to maintain attention to a selected stimulus for a period of time such as paying close attention to the notes while studying for an exam
7
Q
sensory detection
A
we monitor the environment consciously, with conscious parameters placed so that we ignore all the stimuli around us and respond only to certain ones. for example ignoring the movement of students in a class but responding to someone tapping you on the shoulder
8
Q
response selection
A
is responding to certain stimuli but not others, there is always movement and stimuli around us that we do not pay attention to, attention is not under conscious control so it can be affected by many things
9
Q
levels of processing
A
they range from shallow all the way to deep
10
Q
shallow processing
A
in this, we are processing the structures, i.e structural encoding, for example encoding a color or a letter. it happens in less than a second and is not worth as much energy. it is also unconscious
11
Q
intermediate processing
A
it is done when reading, it is the default mode of processing in the brain and is also known as phonemic encoding. (rhyming, etc.)
12
Q
deep processing
A
is also called semantic encoding and processing things through meaning and symbolism. the more deep processing that occurs the better the recall of memory. This happens when we take new information we want to learn and apply it to old information we already know and can easily remember and connect them together, this leads to the greatest gain in memory.
13
Q
facilitating encoding
A
this includes elaboration, visual imagery, self-referential encoding, rehearsal and over learning, deep and transfer appropriate thinking, distributed practice, and organizing information
14
Q
elaboration
A
this refers to the formation of a number of different connections around a stimulus, it is basically making an example to understand something, we used to communicate with stories so this is the best tool we have. Greater elaboration is liked with neural activity, especially in the brain’s left frontal lobe, it activates parts of the brain associated with language and our hippocampus
15
Q
visual imagery
A
the use of images helps us remember better, it makes us more confident, it is a great way of increasing encoding.
16
Q
dual code hypothesis
A
this states that the memory for pictures is better than the memory for words because pictures are stored as both images and verbal codes
17
Q
self-referential encoding
A
is paying attention to things our memory is biased towards, for example if I say I am learning about my brain I learn more than when I say I am learning about the brain
18
Q
rehearsal and over-learning
A
this is when you do things over and over again and you get better as you do it, over-learning can create better proficiency but only up to a certain point
19
Q
deep and transfer appropriate thinking
A
this is the idea that it is easier to recall information in the same method that we learned it. it basically says the more similar the encoding where you learned it the easier the retrieval is. for example, sitting in the same spot of where you usually sit in a lecture in an exam
20
Q
distributed practice
A
this is when you spread the practice over time, it maximizes the attention and time to consolidate information when you sleep. Studying for 9 hours is useless because after an hour the attention drops and so it is not as beneficial
21
Q
organizing information
A
includes time management and requires consistency and persistence
22
Q
mnemonic devices
A
these include verbal and visual
23
Q
verbal
A
these include acronyms and rhymes, we can remember things by creating rhymes and acronymes can be used as well. Acronyms are quite problematic because sometimes we can forget what they stand for.
24
Q
visual
A
this includes the link method, keywords, method of loci, and SQ3R. The link method is when you imagine you are doing something like if you were to go grocery shopping you imagine yourself putting the things in the shopping cart. The method of loci is the most used method and it is when you use something familiar and associate it with something new. The keyword method is you use something general to symbolize something
25
encoding specificity principle
this is the idea that the ease of retrieval of a memory depends on the match of encoding with retrieval. It is harder to recall something when shallow learning is examined using a deep-processing technique. For example, if a student were to only study multiple choice questions in the textbook for an essay writing test they wouldn't do as well. the information present at the time of encoding or learning tends to be effective as a retrieval cue, a change in context can affect this.
26
storage
this refers to how information is retained over time and held in memory
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atkinson-shriffin theory
states that memory is stored in three separate systems which are sensory memory, short term memory and long term memory
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sensory memory
it holds information from the world for only a few seconds, it includes echoic and iconic memory, echoic is what we hear and is retained for several seconds, and iconic is what we see and is retained for a 1/4 of a second
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sensory memory study
the first one was conducted on iconic memory. It was done by flashing 9 letters and the participants were only able to recall 4 or 5 letters at most. A hypothesis was that all 9 letters were seen but forgetting from iconic memory is really quick so the letters did not transfer to short-term memory
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short term memory
it has a limited capacity and retains information for about 30 seconds and it stores it longer than sensory memory
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characteristics of short-term memory
it involves rehearsal, which can be broken down into maintenance which is when the information is repeated, and elaboration which is when information is related to previous knowledge. Chunking also improves STM, this is when things are grouped together in order to remember them better. Rehearsal is not the best in the long run and it can be done consciously or automatically. Adding meaning to things allows it to stay in our memory longer
32
working memory
it is temporary storage and processes information used to solve problems and respond to environmental demands and achieve goals. It combines short-term memory and attention which allows us to hold memory while performing cognitive tasks. this is not the same as short-term memory, because STM is a passive storehouse while WM is an active storehouse.
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characteristics of working memory
this is where thinking occurs. It has been useful in the early detection of alzheimers. it consists of the visual, verbal, and central executive, which are shown to be separate so that damaging one of them does not affect the other.
34
visual (Visuospatial sketchpad)
provides information about the location of objects, it is limited and works independently from the verbal memory store.
35
verbal (phonological loop)
involved storage of verbal items and it has a limited capacity and is shallow, it is processed in order of presentation and it is subject to interference. it stores speech-based information about sounds of language
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central executive
it integrates information between the two and plays a role in attention and organizing. it monitors what we pay attention to and what we ignore. it has a limited capacity
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Long term memory
a relatively permanent type of memory that stores huge amounts of information for a long time.
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serial position curve
supports the existence of STM vs LTM, the primacy reflects LTM, we can not make this go away, and recency reflects STM, we can make this go away. it is the tendency to recall items at the beginning and end of a list more than the ones in the middle. primacy refers to items at beginning of list and recency to items at end of the list.
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Working memory and LTM
LTM is harder to access but is unlimited in its capacity, and working memory is the opposite. LTM impairment is when a person shows normal working memory but cannot transfer the information to LTM, a working memory deficit is when a person has a memory span of 2 digits but a normal LTM
40
functional aspects of memory
recall of information may be a function of our interest, we remember things we are more interested in
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networks of association
our LTM is organized in clusters of information that are related in meaning, the network is composed of interconnected nodes. A node may contain thoughts, images, smells, etc. Mnemonic devices allow us to add concepts to existing networks. phonemic priming is when you get confused with rhyming words, like silk silk and the ask what do cows drink? Relying on automatic processes can easily cause us to make mistakes
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varieties of LTM
declarative and procedural
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declarative (explicit)
it is conscious and has to do with who, what, where, when, and why, it is recollecting information that can be verbally communicated (for example recalling events in a movie)
it can be split into semantic and episodic, semantic is facts such as 2+2 is 4. Episodic is memories of specific events, when we think about past memories the hippocampus activates activity that was associated with the memory. the temporal lobes, cerebral cortex, and limbic system play a role in this as well.
44
implicit or procedural
are unconscious and is memory in which behavior is affected by prior experience without recollection of that experience. for example, texting or playing tennis. involves priming which is activating information that you already have in storage to help remember new information faster. cerebellum is active here
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Theories as to how LTM is organized
schema and connectionist networks, the schema views memory as large knowledge structures while connectionists view it as electrical impulses
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schema
is a pre-existing mental concept that helps us organize information, it can be at work when recalling information, it is like a sort of script for an event.
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connectionist networks
also called parallel distributed processing is the theory that memory is stored throughout the brain in connections among neurons
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long term potentiation
connects with connectionist theory and says that if 2 neurons are activated at the same time the connection between them may be strengthened.
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memory retrieval
this is when information that was retrieved in memory comes out of storage
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factors involved in retrieval
nature of cues and retrieval task that you set
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recall
when you retrieve previously learned information
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recognition
when you identify learned items
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context-dependent memory
recalling information is the same context in which it was learned
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what affects memory
patterns of information, schemas, the context of information, etc.
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false memory
it involves an error in distinguishing between internally generated experience and eternally generated experience
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reminiscence bump
refers to the fact that people remember more events from the second and third decades of life
57
autobiographical memory
is the recollection of your own experience it has three levels
1. lifetime periods
2. general events
3. event-specific knowledge
may be one of the most important forms of life because it helps us learn from experience
58
flashbulb memory
a memory of emotionally significant events that people often recall with more accuracy than everyday events, this is evidence that memory for traumatic experiences are usually more accurate than memory for ordinary events
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repression
is a defense mechanism by which a person is so traumatized by an event that they forget it.
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motivated forgetting
happens when a person forgets something because it is so painful
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retrieval failure
failure of retrieving information you know and this can happen because of problems in storage, time, or personal reasons.
62
encoding failure
when information was never entered into LTM
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interference theory
states that people forget because other information gets in the way of what we are trying to remember
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proactive interfernece
this is when material that was learned before disrupts the recall of material learned later
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retroactive interference
when material learned later disrupts retrieval of information learned earlier
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decay theory
when we learn something new a neurochemical trace forms but over time this trace can disintegrate, this suggests that the passing of time increases forgetting
67
prospective memory
involves remembering information about doing something in the future, involves timing and context, and failure in this refers to absentmindedness. it fails when retrieval is a conscious effort rather than an automatic process
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event-based memory
is better than time based memory because you engage in the behaviour
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anterograde amnesia
affects the retention of new information
70
retrograde amnesia
involves memory loss for a segment of past events, it is more common
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psychogenic amnesia
there is no physical trauma but we forget aspects of the past
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denial
we are conscious of the thing but we do not believe that it applies to us
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seven sins of memory
1. memories fade away
2. we do not remember what we don't pay attention to
3. our memories can be temporarily blocked
4. we can misattribute the source of the memory
5. we are suggestible in our memories
6. we can show memory distortion
7. we often fail to forget the things we would not like to recall
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cognitive psychology
study of mental processes
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cognition
ways information is processed and manipulated in remembering, thinking, and knowing, before cognitive psychology behaviorism was the dominant thinking experimental psychologists
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BF skinner
he believed that the human mind is a black box left to philosophers, he considered observable behavior as the proper focus of psychologists, but this had little use for mental processes
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computer science
it was a key motivator in the birth of human cognition, Charles Babbage was the father of the computer
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the analogy of brain and computer
the physical brain is the hardware and the software is the conginiton
79
herbert Simon
he said that sensory and perceptual systems provide an input channel and as input comes into the mind mental processes act on it. The transferred input generates information that remains in memory, the information is then retrieved when needed
80
AI
focuses on creating machines that are capable of performing activities that require intelligence when we do them, which is helpful in tasks that require speed and persistence.
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how did the term cognitive psychology come about
this term was adopted as a label for research that was aimed at explaining observable behavior by looking at mental processes and structures that we cannot directly observe
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thinking
this involves the manipulation of information mentally by creating concepts and solving problems
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concepts
they are mental categories that are used to group things, we are good at creating concepts in order to make sense of the information around us, they tell us what we think but not why we think.
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why are concepts important
1. allow us to generalize (good for our survival)
2. allow us to associate experiences and objects
3. makes memory efficient (imagine having to think about how to sit in a chair)
4. provides clues as to how to react to something
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prototype model
emphasizes that when people evaluate wether something belongs to a certain concept, we compare things with the most common thing in that category.
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problem-solving
is finding a way to attain a goal when the goal is not available, when we transform one situation into another to meet a gaol
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4 steps to problem-solving
1. recognizing the problem
2. developing a strategy for solving the issue, this includes making subgoals, working backwards, algorithms, heuristics
3. evlauting the solutions and asking ourselves how good this solution is to the problem
4. Rethinking the problem and being motivated to improve
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algorithms
systematic procedures that will produce a solution to a problem, they are fixed and help solve problems that are formulas, these are great for well-defined problems, it will test all possibilities until we get to the right solution.
89
heuristics
this suggests a solution to the problem but it does not guarantee it. This is more likely used than algorithms, it helps us narrow down the possible solutions, and is fast, can lead to multiple solutions.
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hypothesis testing
making an educated guess about a problem then testing it, basically trial and error
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mental stimulation
mental rehearsal of the steps needed to solve a problem
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well defined problems
have one fixed answer, and we prefer these more
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ill-defined problems
there is no one right answer, and we often apply algorithmic solutions to ill-defined problems which are insufficient
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fixation
when we use past strategies on new problems instead of looking at it from a new perspective
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functional fixedness
when you fail to solve a problem because of being fixated on the object's usual function, and example is trying to think of many functions of a brick
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mental set
we want to do things the way we have always done them
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unnecessary constraints
we have to question these to get rid of them
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reasoning
the activity of transforming information to reach a goal, it is closely tied to critical thinking. involves following established rules to come to a conclusion, this is different than decision-making because these rules do not exist we do not know the consequences of our decision
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inductive reasoning
reasoning from a specific observation to make a generalization, so you start with incoming information and make a conclusion. this is used when making generalizations
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deductive reasoning
reasoning from a general principle that we know to be a specific instance. when we draw conclusions from facts
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decision making
it differs from reasoning and it involves evaluating alternatives and choosing among them, it is less certain than reasoning
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automatic systems
involve following your hunch about something, gut feelings are a result of learned associations, automatic processes rely on heuristics
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intuitive judgments
knowing something feels right, this can be less biased and more efficient
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controlled system
is slower and effortful, used to solve difficult problems
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loss aversion
one of the most powerful biases in decision-making, it refers to the tendency to prefer to avoid losses compared to gains. this explains why its hard to cut our losses when we are losing. the sunk cost fallacy explains this, it says people are reluctant to give up on something because of past things. can also explain economics
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confirmation bias
tendency to search for information that supports our ideas rather than against them. also known as myside bias
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hindsight bias
tendency to report falsely after accurately predicting an outcome "I knew it all along". the reason this happens is because actual events are more vivid than all the things that actually happen which is an effect called availability heuristics
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availability heuristics
when a prediction about an event is based on the ease of recalling similar events, we think that things that are cognitively available are more likely to happen. it is a reason why people have a difficult time believing that crime rates have declines, it can reinforce generalizations about other people
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base rate neglect
tendency to ignore information about the general principle in favor of very specific information, so deciding not to buy something just because a friend had a bad experience
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representative heuristics
tendency to make judgments based on irrelevant stereotypes
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bias blind spot
recognizing biases in other but missing it in your own decision
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open-mindedness
being open to other ways of looking at things, being actively open minded is being flexible with your thinking.
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creativity
thinking about something in new and unusual ways
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divergent thinking
produces many solutions to the same problem, this occurs during brainstorming
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convergent thinking
produces a single best solution to a problem
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intelligence
cultures have a different ways of defining intelligence, some think of it in terms of reasoning and thinking skills and some consider it the level of participation in family and social life. For example in Canada, it is defined as the ability to do well in cognitive tasks and learn from experience.
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spearmen's view of intelligence
as a person who is good in cognitive activities
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savant syndrome
when an individual is amazing in one subject such as math but has poor mental abilities
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IQ- intelligence quotient
this is what psychologists use to measure intelligence, this was developed to compare the intelligence level of children of different ages.
IQ = (mental age/chronological age) x 100
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validity
refers to the extent to which a test measures what it is intended to measure
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reliability
the extent to which a test yields a consistent measure of performance, so scoring the same over and over again. a test can be reliable but not valid but has to be reliable to be valid.
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criterion validity
when the score on a measure relate to important outcomes
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standardization
developing uniform procedures for administring a test, this requires that the environment be as similar as possible for all people
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who constructed the first intelligence test
Binet, and his test measured a person's mental abilities to the mental abilities of that age group, he developed the concept of mental age, which is a person's level of mental development relative to others
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Weschler scale
is another measure of intelligence that is currently the most popular measure of intelligence
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normal distribution
when the scores are symmetrical and fall near the middle
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culture fair tests
intelligence tests are culturally biased, so these tests were developed so that they could be unbiased, but it is impossible to make one so there are only culture-reduced tests
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heritability
the observable differences in a group that can be explained by differences in genes of group members, the idea that the heritability of genes is possible is challenged by the fact that the human genome possesses some degree of plasticity
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what do statistics describe
they describe groups not people
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environmental factors that affect IQ
1. dietary supplements: omega 3 is found to influence childhood IQ
2. educational: early childhood development plays a big role
3. interactive reading: parents ask open-ended questions and encourage children to read
4. preschool
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Flynn effect
the rapidly increasing IQ test scores around the world
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low intelligence
intelligence also describes behavior and can be marked by limited mental abilities such as:
1. conceptual: reading, writing, math
2. social skills: empathy and ability to make friends.
3. practical skills: self-management and responsibility
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what could cause low intelligence
could be cultural or social in origin, or family challenges, growing up in low-income environments.
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down syndrome
a person with downs could be capable of building close relations with others, and could posses different kinds of intelligence even if they are low on general cognitive ability
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Sternberg
developed triarchic theory of intelligence which says that intelligence comes in three forms:
1. analytical: ability to analyze
2. Creative; ability to create
3. Practical: the ability to apply ideas into practice
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Gardener
he said there are 9 types of intelligence which are verbal, mathematical, spatial, bodily-kinesthetic, musical, interpersonal, intrapersonal, naturalist, and existentialist
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what influences cognitive decline
exercise can be effective in battling cognitive decline that could lead to Alzheimer's.
food can also influence the risk of dementia, a diet high in flavanols can protect against diseases that shorten our life span, these foods include olive oil, tomatoes, beans, and apples.
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language
we develop language innately, we learn it no matter what, it is a form of communication that is based on symbols, sound, and rules of combination
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5 basic rule systems
1. phonology: a langauge sound system, phenomes, it is the smallest unit of sound like the letter "s"
2. morphology: languages roles for word formation, morphemes, it is the smallest unit of meaning, and it includes suffixes and prefixes, such as "s" which makes things plural, not all letters are morphemes
3. syntax: languages rule for combining words, rules, and structure of grammar, this is not universal.
4. semantics: the meaning of words in a language, they include denotation and connotation, denotation is the word itself and connotation is the context of the word
5. pragmatics: the character of language, it is what allows us to use words to get what we want
phrases are composed of morphemes and sentences are a string of morphemes and phrases that express a thought
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Whorf
argued that language determines the way we thing and this view is called the linguistic relatively hypothesis
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Williams syndrome
demonstrates that intellectual challenges are not always accompanied by poor language skills
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can language influence cognition
yes it can and cognition is an important foundation for language, they influence each other
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chomsky
argued that humans come into the world biologically prewired to learn language
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where does complex language processing occur
in the left hemisphere, the Wernicke's area is for comprehension and the Broca's area is for speech production
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behaviorists
they think langauge is a complex learned skill
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nonverbal communication
90% of our communication is done unconsciously, we are experts at reading body language, for example a tie is a symbol of authority so when we see someone wearing it we unconsciously listen to them
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nonverbal communication part 2
this includes:
1. vocal intonation
2. body language like crossed arms
3. gestures which include hands and fingers
4. physical distance
5. facial expressions and touch
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language development
we start with babbling and then we start saying words, we get a vocabulary spurt around 18 months
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receptive vs productive vocabulary
receptive is what we understand and productive is what we say. receptive requires recognition and productive requires spontaneous recall
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fast mapping
a new concept is learned based only on minimal exposure
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over and under extensions
if a child thinks that a car is anything that moves they could point to a horse and say that its a car which is over extension. over is applying the meaning of the word to something it does not belong to and under is limiting the meaning of the word to one thing.
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overregularization
the use of semantic language rule improperly, like a child saying "goed" instead of "went"
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BF skinner (nurture)
he said that children imitate their parents and this is wrong because we do not need a model to make up a language it will happen naturally. he suggested that children receive differential reinforcement for speech sounds
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Nature (nativist)
chomsky says that language acquisition appears to be universal across cultures, but this could not be accounted for by learning. Langauge is innate
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interactionist view
combines both innate structures and behavioral reinforcement
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periods for language acquisition
children can easily learn second languages but adults find it harder, we have to be exposed to language at some point in our childhood.
Genies case is an example that shows that we have a critical period for language acquisition, she was a child that was isolated by her parents and was unable to learn complex language as she grew
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cognitive appraisal
refers to how a person interprets a situation
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primary appraisal
when people interpret whether an event involves harm or loss that has already occurred (getting a bad grade and seeing it as a challenge)
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secondary appraisal
evaluating our resources and determining how effective they can be in coping with the event
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cognitive reappraisal
involves regulating our feelings about an experience by reinterpreting it or thinking about it in a different way
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development
refers to the pattern of change in human capabilities that happen in a lifetime
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developmental psychology
is the study of change over time, focuses on how people change physically and psychologically. It assumes that change is inevitable. anywhere we are measuring change over time. can be continuous or discontinuous. it has three levels:
1. physical change (maturation): includes puberty and menopause.
2. cognitive change: a person's thoughts, emotions, and intelligence
3. socioemotional change: relationships with people
studies in this area are correlation by nature because age is a variable that can not be manipulated
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problems in developmental psychology
environment plays a big role and we can not escape the environment it is everywhere. it is hard to determine the importance of critical periods and whether change is continuous or in stages.
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what two designs do developmental psychologists rely on?
1. cross-sectional
2. longitudinal
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cross-sectional
people of different age groups are assessed at one point in time, it is useful for assessing age differences but not age changes. The issue with this is the cohort effect, which means that each group has different life experiences. These studies can not detect that the changes persist over time, there are other variables that could affect it.
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longitudinal method
studies the same group many times over a long time, this reduces the cohort effect. We have a maximum amount of information here, the issue with this is that it is time-consuming and expensive, but this ensures that the change is age changes.
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nature and nurture in development
sometimes our environment can decide whether a gene is expressed or not. we can inherit genes that make us tall for example but our nutrition plays a role in this.
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resilience
a persons ability to overcome difficult situations and times
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child development
this is split into three parts
1. germinal period
2. embryonic period
3. fetal period
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germinal period
1-2 weeks after conception, the zygote is made up of many cells and attaches to the uterine wall
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embryonic period
3-8 weeks, the systems and organs start to develop. The neural tube takes shape, and heart starts to beat at the end. in this stage vulnerability grows
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fetal period
9 weeks on. the fetus is now bean size and starts to move
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teratogens
anything that causes birth defects such as alcohol and drugs. It could be chemicals as well such as mercury or lead.
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FASD
a bunch of abnormalities that appear in the offspring of mothers who drink during pregnancy.
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crack cocaine
exposure to fetus can alter motor and emotional development
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effects of teratogens
they depend on the timing and exposure, the organ system that is developing when the fetus encounters the teratogen is the most vulnerable
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reflexes
innate responses elicited by critical stimuli, they are adaptive
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baby reflexes
they are born with the ability to suck and swallow. babies motor and perceptual skills develop mutually. they have a rooting reflex which helps with feeding.
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preferential looking
something researchers take advantage of, they give infants a choice of what objects to look at, looking at one more than the other tells us that babies can tell objects apart
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synaptic connection in childhood
they increase dramatically. a synapse is a gap between neurons
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2 distinct processes in brain development
1. proliferation of connections, when there are more connections than needed
2. strengthening or elimination of connections
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what part of the brain grows the most during the ages of 3-6
the frontal lobes
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motor development
at 2 months babies should lift their chin, at 5 they should be able to sit alone, at 6 they should be able to stand, at 9 they should be able to walk with support and at 11 they should be able to stand alone
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Piaget's theory of cognitive development
says that children actively construct their cognitive world as they go through a series of stages, he argued that children have schemas that help them make sense of their experiences. his interest was epistemology which is a branch of philosophy that is concerned with knowledge acquisition. the modification of intellectual schemas as the child seeks to understand the world.
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2 processes for how schemas develop
1. assimilation
2. accommodation
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assimilation
when a person incorporates new information into existing knowledge. applying old ways to face new experiences, the schema does not change
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accommodation
when a person adjusts their schemas to new information instead of using old ways, new schemas can develop and old ones are modified
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stage theory
1. sensorimotor
2. pre-operational
3. concrete operational
4. formal operational
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sensorimotor stage
from birth to 2 years, limited capacity to only sensory and movement. object performance is the understanding that objects and events continue to exist even when they are not directly seen
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operations
mental representations that are reversible
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pre-operational stage
2-7 years. difficulty understanding that reversing an action may restore the original conditions. more symbolic than the first stage.
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concrete operational stage
7-11 years of age. using operations and replacing intuitive reasoning with logical reasoning
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formal operational stage
11 years and older. more abstract and logical. includes thinking about things that are not concrete
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issues in Piaget's cognitive development theory
1. object permanence: refers to the realization by a child that an object continues to exist even if it's not seen
2. egocentrism: refers to a cognitive view in which a child understands the world to have only their view, so they have a hard time understanding the view of others)
3. conservation: basic properties of an object stay the same even if it changes same
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Lev Vygotsky
psychologist who took a different approach to developmental psychology and said that cognitive development is an interpersonal process that happens in a cultural context. he thought of children as apprentice thinkers. Children are not only learning to think about the world, but they are learning to think about their own world.
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information processing theory
focuses on how people encode and monitor information and create strategies for handling it, this focuses on memory
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executive function
refers to higher order processing
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temperament
refers to a person's behavior style of responding, there are there basic types of temperament in children:
1. easy child: sleep all night and does not cry often
2. difficult child: up all night, and cry all the time
3. slow to warm child: little anxious, take their time adjusting to new people
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attachment
Is dependant on the caregiver, infants require social interactions to develop
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secure attachment
when the child has full trust in the caregiver so they are fine when the caregiver leaves, they use them as a secure base from which to explore
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avoidant attachment
the baby does not have trust in the caregiver so they don't mind leaving them, and they don't mind playing with a stranger
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anxious attachment
the baby takes a while to get used to a stranger, and is mad at the caregiver but also wants love from them. they don't have full trust in their caregiver
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three reasons why attachment theory has been criticized
1. does not account for cultural variations
2. fails to take infant temperament into account
3. fails to acknowledge that caregivers and infants share genetic characteristics
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Erikson's theory of socioemotional development
says there are 8 stages and personality is shaped by how individuals deal with problems
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the first stage is trust vs mistrust
is my world supportive? if an infant is cared for, the infant develops good trust.
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The second stage is autonomy vs doubt
can I do things myself or do I always have to rely on others? this can happen during potty training, knowing how to do it instills a feeling of autonomy in the child.
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the third stage is initiative vs guilt
am I good or bad? parents who support their children foster initiative in their children.
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the fourth stage is industry vs inferiority
am I successful or worthless? people who learn effectively in school get a sense of industry
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the fifth stage is identity vs confusion
who am I and where am I going in life? "mid-life crisis"
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The sixth stage is intimacy vs isolation
shall I share my life with another?
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the seventh stage is generativity vs self-absorption.
have I contributed to the future generations, will I produce something of real value?
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the 8th stage is integrity vs despair
have I lived a full life?
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4 styles of parenting
1. Authoritarian: strict style and limits the child.
2. Authoritative: encourages child to be independent but still places limits
3. neglectful: lack of involvement
4. permissive: placing few limits
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kohlbergs theory of moral development
believed that moral development advances because of maturation of thought
1. pre-conventional: moral reasoning based on consequences of behavior in the form of punishments or rewards
2. conventional: abides by standards learned from parents
3. post-conventional: recognize alternative moral courses, explores options
a problem in this theory is that he missed the large role of emotion in moral decision making
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5 foundations for moral judgment
1. care
2. fairness
3. loyalty
4. authority
5. purity
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puberty
a period of rapid growth and hormonal changes
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testosterone
an androgen which is in boys and develops genitals increases height, and changes voice
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estradiol
an estrogen found in girls and causes uterine developments
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Marcia's theory
identity status has two dimensions
1. exploration which is investigating options
2. commitment which refers to deciding which path to follow
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5 features of adulthood
1. identity exploration
2. instability
3. self focus
4. feeling "in-between"
5. age of possibilities
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main theories of aging
1. cellular-clock theory: cells become less capable of dividing with old age
2. free radical theory: frailty in old age because of free radicals in our cells
3. hormonal stress theory: aging lowers resistance to stress and increases the likelihood of diseases
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4 principles to a successful marriage
1. nurturing fondness
2. turning towards each other as friends
3. giving up power
4. solving conflicts together
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socioemotional selectivity theory
older adults are selective in their social interactions in order to maximize their positive experiences
