Terminology: 17-22 Flashcards
(102 cards)
1
Q
Four types of animal tissue
A
- Epithelial Tissue
- Connective Tissue
- Muscle Tissue
- Nervous Tissue
2
Q
Epithelial Tissue
A
Lines and covers the surfaces of the body.
* Closely packed
* Protects
* Absorbs
* Secretes
3
Q
Connective Tissue
A
Develops from the mesoderm.
Supportive tissue that connects other tissues, has storage functions. Loose, fibrous.
- Bone
- Cartilage
- Fat
- Blood
4
Q
Muscle Tissue
A
Specialized tissue that enables movement through contraction.
Types of muscle tissue:
1. Cardiac
2. Smooth
3. Skeletal/Striated
5
Q
Nervous Tissue
A
Composed of nerve cells (neurons). Specialized for nerve impulse conduction.
Types:
* Neurons: Sensory, Motor, Interneurons
* Neuroglia: Assistive cells that provide nutrients to the neurons
6
Q
Loose Connective Tissue
A
Connective Tissue
Acts as padding under skin and elsewhere.
Composition:
* Soft extracellular matrix
* Protein fibers
* Cells
7
Q
Bone & Cartilage
A
Connective Tissue
Made up of cells in a hard and stiff extracellular matrix
8
Q
Blood
A
Connective Tissue
Composed of cells in a liquid matrix
9
Q
Neuron
A
Nervous Tissue
Cells with projections that can transmit electrical signals.
10
Q
Striated Muscle
A
- Moves the skeleton
- Voluntary movement
- Long muscle fibers that are parallel
11
Q
Cardiac Muscle
A
- Makes up the walls of the heart
- Involuntary movement.
12
Q
Smooth Muscle
A
- Lines the walls of blood vessels and digestive tract.
- Involuntary movement.
13
Q
Basal Lamina
A
Extracellular matrix layer beneath epithelial tissue that anchors it to other tissues.
14
Q
As volume/mass of an organism increases, the surface area proportionally ___________
Increase / Decrease
A
Decreases.
This means that larger organisms require more advanced structures to power the metabolic processes to sustain that mass.
15
Q
Adaptions to increase surface area
A
- Flattened surfaces (Fish gills)
- Folds and projections (Intestinal villi)
- Branched tubes (Capillaries)
16
Q
Basal (Resting) Metabolic Rate is _______ in larger animals
Higher / Lower
A
Higher
17
Q
Proportional metabolic rate is ________ in smaller animals
Higher / Lower
A
Higher
18
Q
Isometric
A
Linear scaling
19
Q
Allometric
A
Unequal scaling
20
Q
Homeostasis
A
The maintenance of relatively stable internal environment.
21
Q
Homeostatic Regulation
A
- Sensor: Mechanism that senses some aspect of the external or internal environment
- Integrator: Mechanism that compares the incoming sensory information with the “set point” and decides if a response is necessary to achieve homeostasis.
- Effector: Any mechanism that causes a response to help restore homeostasis.
22
Q
Homeostasis Negative Feedback
A
Serves to reduce an excessive response and keep a variable within a normal range.
23
Q
Conduction
A
Direct transfer of heat between two objects in contact with each other.
24
Q
Convection
A
Heat exchange between a solid and a liquid/gas and movement of the liquid/gas relative to the solid.
25
Radiation
Transfer of heat between two bodies that are not in direct contact
26
Behavioral Strategies of Temperature Regulation
* Basking: Gain heat
* Panting: Lose excess heat
* Sweating: Lose excess heat
27
Ectotherm
Organisms that rely on heat gained from environment.
Most animals.
28
Endotherm
Organisms that produce heat within their own tissues through metabolism.
* Mammals
* Birds
29
Homeotherms
Organisms that maintain constant body temperature through metabolic activity
30
Heterotherms (Poikilotherms)
Organisms that can vary between self-regulation of body temperature and allowing the environment to affect their body temperature.
Can tolerate changes in body temperature.
31
Brown Adipose Tissue (Brown Fat)
A type of body fat found in mammals that produces heat rather than ATP, allowing non-shivering thermogenesis.
32
Countercurrent Heat Exchange
Close parallel blood vessels that allow the warmer artery to passively heat the colder vein and reduce overall heat loss.
33
Pros of Endothermy
* Ability to be active in cold weather and night.
* Allows high levels of activity
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Cons of Endothermy
* High cost, requires lots of fuel for metabolism.
* Smaller endotherms lose a lot of heat passively, and require proportionally higher fuel input to maintain metabolism.
35
Electrolytes
Compounds that disassociate in water into ions.
Cells require a precise balance of electrolytes.
* Maintains electrical neutrality in cells
* Generates and conducts action potentials in nerves and muscles
Examples: Sodium (Na+), Potassium (K+), Chloride (Cl-), Calcium (Ca2+)
36
Excretion
Removal of metabolic waste.
Examples:
* Carbon dioxide (CO2)
* Nitrogenous waste
37
Nitrogenous Waste
Excess nitrogen compounds such as ammonia, urea, uric acid, and creatine.
38
Osmoconformers
Organisms that keep their internal fluids isotonic to their environment, they keep an internal salinity similar to ambient conditions.
Examples: Most aquatic invertebrates
39
Osmoregulators
Organisms that actively regulate their osmotic pressure independent of the ambient environment. They have different internal water and electrolyte balance from the external environment.
Examples: Humans, freshwater fish.
40
Osmotic Stress (Shock)
A condition in which a change in solute concentration around a cell causes irregular loss or gain of water and electrolytes
41
Osmolarity
The concentration of a solution expressed as the total number of solute particles (moles) per liter.
42
Passive Transport
Diffusion that does not require ATP expenditure
43
Facilitated Diffusion
Passive transport diffusion through protein channels or carriers
44
Active Transport
Diffusion that occurs through Pumps which expend ATP to transport against the solute's electrochemical gradient.
45
Sodium-Potassium Pump (Na+/K+ ATPase)
A membrane enzyme that functions as a pump to transport potassium ions into the cell while exporting sodium ions out of the cell.
Sodium Ions (Na+) function as antiporters, three sodium ions are exchanged for two potassium ions (K+).
46
Nitrogenous Waste
* Breakdown of excess amino acids and nucleotides results in ammonia (NH3). **Ammonia and its derivatives are nitrogenous waste.**
* NH3 is a strong base that accepts H+ to become ammonium ion NH4+, which raises the pH levels to toxic levels.
47
Isotonic
Solution that has the same osmotic pressure as the opposing solution
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Hypotonic
A solution with a lower osmotic pressure as the opposing solution
49
Hypertonic
A solution with a higher osmotic pressure as the opposing solution
50
Shark Osmoregulation
* Sharks get rid of salt via their rectal glands because their Na+ and Cl- content is lower than seawater.
* Retains water by accumulating Urea & Trimethylamine Oxide (TMAO)
51
Seawater Fish Osmoregulation
* **Water** is gained through **drinking** seawater.
* **Salt** is excreted through **chloride cells** in gills.
52
Freshwater Fish Osmoregulation
* **Water** is gained through **osmosis**
* Their **kidneys** efficiently retain **salt**
53
Insect Osmoregulation
* Reduces water loss with waxy layer of their exoskeleton
* Reduces water loss by closing spiracles (respiratory opening) because water is lost from the trachea
54
Hemolymph
A fluid equivalent in function to blood in most invertebrates.
55
Insect Excretory System
Malpighian tubules: The site of urine formation in insects, plays a major role in osmoregulation.
Hind Gut: Reabsorbs salts and amino acids before excretion to maintain osmotic pressure in the hemolymph
56
Mammal Excretory System
* The urinary system, especially the kidneys are the major homeostatic system in vertebrates.
* Kidneys function to remove waste and maintain water and electrolyte balance.
* The microscopic functional unit of the kidney is the **nephron**
57
Mammal Urinary system
* Kidneys
* Ureters
* Bladder
* Urethra
* Renal Arteries
* Renal Veins
58
Kidney Regions & Functions
1. Renal Corpuscle: Filters blood, forming a "pre-urine" consisting of ions, nutrients, wastes, and water.
2. Proximal Tubule: Epithelial cells reabsorb nutrients, vitamins, ions, and water.
3. Loop of Henle: Consists of tissues with strong osmotic gradients, absorbing water and concentrating urine.
4. Distal Tubule: Ions and water are reabsorbed
59
Nephron Function
1. Glomerular Filtration (Non-selective): Glomerular capillaries act as filters that remove waste and excess fluid from the blood.
2. Tubular Reabsorption (Selective): Nephrons reabsorb useful substances back into the bloodstream.
3. Tubular Secretion: Toxins and H+ are secrete from the blood into the tubules
4. Excretion: Results in urine being produced
60
Collecting Duct
Reabsorbs water to maintain homeostasis.
61
Aldosterone
A hormone released when Na+ levels in the blood are low. Causes reabsorption of Na+ and Cl- in distal tubule.
62
Anti-Diuretic Hormone (ADH)
When the body is dehydrated, the hormone ADH is released that causes the kidneys to retain more water.
Without ADH, urine is diluted and more water is lost when urinating.
63
Carbohydrates
Monosaccharides, disaccharides, and polysaccharides.
The preferred input of cellular respiration.
4 kcal/g
64
Proteins
Polymers of amino acids, serves many functions such as being used as the building blocks of enzymes.
4 kcal/g
65
Lipids
Includes triglycerides, fatty acids, steroids.
9 kcal/g
66
Minerals
Essential elements, many of which are only needed in trace amounts.
* Phosphorus
* Calcium
* Potassium
* Sodium
* Chloride
67
Vitamins
Organic molecules needed in minute amounts, many function as coenzymes in critical reactions.
68
Sequence of Digestive Process
1. Ingestion
2. Digestion
3. Absorption
4. Elimination/Egestion
69
Ingestion
Initial process of taking in food.
70
Digestion
* Mechanical breakdown through chewing
* Chemical breakdown through enzymes
71
Absorption
The absorption of nutrient end products of digestion and water through the lining of the gut into the blood.
Nutrients can then be transported or stored for later use.
72
Elimination/Egestion
Elimination of indigestible material, waste byproduct, and excess.
73
Human Digestive Tract
Parts in Order
1. Mouth
2. Esophagus
3. Stomach
4. Small Intestine
5. Large Intestine
6. Appendix
7. Anus
74
Human Digestive Tract Accessory Organs
1. Salivary glands
2. Liver
3. Gallbladder
4. Pancreas
75
Mouth
* Mechanical digestion through chewing
* Chemical digestion of carbohydrates via saliva
76
Esophagus
Transports food from mouth to stomach
77
Stomach
Site of mechanical and chemical processing
78
Small Intestine
Site of absorption
79
Large Intestine
Absorbs water and forms feces
Contains symbiotic bacteria
80
Appendix
Contains immune tissue
Harbors symbiotic bacteria
81
Anus
Eliminates feces
82
Salivary glands
Secretes enzymes that digest carbohydrates
Also lubricates mucus
83
Liver
* Secretes molecules that aid in fat digestion
* Stores glucose as glycogen to reduce blood glucose levels
* breaks down glycogen to glucose to increase blood glucose levels
84
Gallbladder
Stores secretions from the liver and empties it into the small intestine
85
Pancreas
* Secretes enzymes and other materials into the small intestine
* Secretes insulin and glucagon to regulate blood glucose levels
86
Pepsinogen
Converted into pepsin by HCl
87
Pepsin
The primary digestive enzyme in the stomach which breaks down proteins into polypeptides
88
HCl
Denatures proteins and converts pepsinogen to pepsin
89
Bile
Emulsifies fat
Made in the liver and stored in the gallbladder.
Received by the small intestine.
90
Bicarbonate
Adjusts pH of acid chyme from stomach to 7.4
From the pancreas.
91
Enterokinase
An protease produced by the duodenum (first part of the small intestine).
Cleaves the acidic propeptide from trypsinogen to yield trypsin.
Activates pancreatic enzymes
92
Trypsin
An enzyme of the small intestine that aids with protein digestion.
93
Lipase
An enzyme in Bile that acts as an emulsifier of lipids.
94
Gastrin
A hormone found in the stomach that stimulates HCl secretion
95
Secretin
A hormone from the small intestine that stimulates the pancreas to secrete bicarbonate
96
Cholecystokinin (CCK)
A hormone from the small intestine that stimulates the release of bile from the pancreas.
97
Features to increase surface area for absorption in the small intestine
1. Length
2. Folds
3. Villi
4. Microvilli
98
Insulin
A hormone made by the pancreas, lowers blood sugar
99
Glucagon
A hormone made by the pancreas, raises blood sugar
100
Hepatic Portal Vein
Carries blood from the intestines, spleen, pancreas, and gallbladder to the **liver**
101
Type I Diabetes
Autoimmune destruction of insulin-secreting B-cells. Thus the body does not produce enough insulin to properly lower blood glucose levels.
Juvenile onset
102
Type II Diabetes
Defective insulin receptors, thus cannot be treated with insulin injections. Careful dieting is treatment.
Adult onset
