Terms - critical thinking Flashcards
(141 cards)
1
Q
absurd consequences move
-Latin name
-definition
-example
A
-Reductio ad absurdum
-Proving that a position is false, or at least untenable, by showing that if true, it would lead to absurd consequences
-anyone who takes mind-altering drugs should be locked up / many influential people have drunk alcohol / should we have locked them up?
2
Q
ad hoc clauses
-definition
-example
-problems?
A
- clauses added to a hypothesis to make the hypothesis consistent with some new observation or discovered fact
- a biologist reaching a hypothesis about all living organisms / finds an organism which doesn’t fit with the hypothesis / amends the hypothesis by adding an (except that organism) clause
- this is the alternative to discarding the hypothesis / whilst it is okay for one or two exception clauses, it can be undermined as a generalisation by adding numerous exception clauses
3
Q
Ad hominem (2 cases)
A
1) an informal fallacy; shifting the debate to focus on a personal (irrelevant) attack
2) a legitimate demonstration of an opponent’s inconsistency
E.g. hypocriticism
4
Q
Affirming the antecedent
A
If p then q
P
Therefore q
5
Q
affirming the consequent
A
If p then q
Q
Therefore p
A formal fallacy
6
Q
ambiguity (3 types)
A
When confusion can arise due to more than one interpretation of a statement
7
Q
Lexical ambiguity
A
When a word with more than one meaning is used, so the phrase / sentence can be understood in more than one way
8
Q
Referential ambiguity
A
When a word used could be taken to be referring to more than one thing e.g. The phone was by the book; I picked it up {did you pick up the book or the phone}
9
Q
Syntactical ambiguity
A
Also known as amphiboly
When the order of the words allows for more than one interpretation
10
Q
analogy
Only useful when?
A
Arguments based on a comparison between two things which are alleged to be similar.
Only yields probable conclusions at best - can’t provide conclusive evidence
Only reliable if the situations being compared are relevantly similar
Analogy must hold in relevant respect IN order for the argument to have any force
An exception is analogy in a logical form
11
Q
anecdotal evidence
A
Evidence which comes from selected stories
Weak evidence - involves generalising from one case
Often used in a pejorative way
The appropriateness of this evidence depends entirely on context and the type of evidence used
12
Q
antecedent
A
the first part of an ‘if … then’ statement
13
Q
argument
A
reasons supporting a conclusion
14
Q
assertion
A
an unsupported statement of belief
15
Q
assumption
A
an unstated premise, one that is taken for granted and never made explicit
could also mean a stated premise that is the starting-point of an argument
nothing intrinsically wrong with assumptions
16
Q
bad company fallacy
A
attacking another’s position solely on the grounds that it is one that has also been upheld by some obviously evil or stupid person
17
Q
good company fallacy
A
believing whatever someone of whom you approve endorses
18
Q
bad reasons fallacy
A
the mistake of assuming that if the reasons given for a conclusion are false, then the conclusion itself must be false
an informal fallacy
it is possible to derive true conclusions from false premises; it is also possible to derive them from true premises using fallacious reasoning
bad arguments don’t reliably yield truth
19
Q
begging the question
A
assuming the very point that is at issue
can involve incorporating the conclusion of the argument into one of the premises
not a formal fallacy - a valid form of argument - but it is not convincing
20
Q
biting the bullet
A
accepting the apparently unpalatable consequences which follow from principles which you are unwilling to discard
e.g. a utilitarian stating that it is right to kill an innocent person in certain cases
21
Q
black and white thinking
A
classifying every particular case as an example of one of two extremes when in fact there is a range of possible positions that can be occupied
22
Q
catch-22
A
a rule which allows you no way out, when another rule apparently does allow a way out
e.g. needing relevant work experience for a job, but only being able to get that work experience if you’ve already had the work experience you are trying to get
23
Q
principle of charity
A
interpreting arguments or positions adopted by others in the best light possible
24
Q
circular arguments
A
‘A’ because of ‘B’
‘B’ because of ‘A’
not invalid, but uninformative
25
circular definition
whatever is to be defined (definiendum) itself crops up in the definition (definiens)
26
companions in guilt move
demonstrating that the case in question is not unique & if the arguer wants to defend the conclusion, they will have to treat further cases in the same way
e.g. if someone wanted to ban boxing because it is dangerous, one might argue that other sports which have caused severe injuries should also be banned
27
complex questions
questions with several parts that have the appearance of a simple question
an informal fallacy - the fallacy of many questions
often used to deliberately trick the unwary into a confession
28
compound questions
aka complex questions
29
conclusion
the main judgement arrived at in an argument
30
conditional statements
if 'p' then 'q'
provided the antecedent is true, the consequent must be true
31
consequent
the second part of an 'if ... then' statement
32
contradiction
two statements which cannot both be true as one denies the other
33
consistency
two beliefs are consistent when they can both be true
34
consistent application of principles
not making special exceptions without good reasons
35
contraries
two statements which cannot both be true, though they can both be false
36
correlation = causation confusion
the mistake of treating a correlation as conclusive evidence of a direct causal connection
just because two things tend to be found together, it doesn't follow that one of them causes the other
37
post hoc ergo propter hoc error
because it occurs after this, therefore it occurs because of this
38
counterexample
a particular case which refutes a generalisation
effective against rash generalisations
39
deduction
Valid reasoning from premises to conclusion
truth-preserving: if the premises are true, the conclusion will be true
40
democratic fallacy
treats majority opinion as revealed by voting as a source of truth and a reliable guide for action
an informal fallacy
an informed majority is generally needed, not simply a majority
41
denying the antecedent
if 'p' then 'q'
not 'p'
therefore not 'q'
a formal fallacy
treats 'if' as 'if and only if'
42
denying the consequent
a valid argument
if 'p' then 'q'
not 'q'
therefore not 'p'
43
devil's advocate
someone who puts the strongest possible case against a position for the sake of argument rather than due to real disagreement
useful for identifying loopholes and avoiding sloppy thinking
44
dictionary definitions
accounts of how words are and have been used
45
disanalogy
ways in which two things being compared in an analogy differ
a serious disanalogy undermines an argument from analogy
46
domino effect
if one thing is allowed to happen then this will inevitably trigger a chain of subsequent undesirable events
47
drawing a line
making a distinction between two categories which only differ in degree
48
economy with the truth
selective withholding of information with intent to deceive
49
emotive language
language which arouses emotion, usually by expressing the speaker's approval/disapproval of a group or person
typical emotions aroused by such language are hatred or strong approval
50
empirical
based on experience or observation
51
enthymeme
an argument with a suppressed premise; argument with a tacit assumption without which the conclusion would be a non sequitur
52
equivocation
a type of lexical ambiguity in which the same word or phrase is used twice or more within an argument but with a different meaning
53
etymological fallacy
an informal fallacy & a genetic fallacy
unreliable and often misleading move from a word's original meaning to its current meaning
54
'everyone does it'
an inadequate excuse based on the companions in guilt move
55
exception that proves the rule
a singular counterexample which tests the truth of a generalisation
here, 'proves' means 'tests out' - an archaic meaning
56
false dichotomy
a misleading account of the available alternatives
57
family resemblance term
a name coined by Ludwig Wittgenstein
words or concepts which cannot be defined in terms of necessary and sufficient conditions
58
formal fallacy
any invalid form of argument
e.g. one in which the premises can be true without the conclusion necessarily being true
is not truth-preserving
59
gambler's fallacy
Believing that in games of chance your odds of winning increase the more times you lose
60
genetic fallacy
An informal fallacy
'x originates from y, therefore X must have some features in common with y
Usually implied
61
getting personal
Attacking the character of the person with whom you are arguing rather than finding fault with his or her argument
62
humptydumptying
Giving private meanings to words in common use
63
hypocrisy
Advocating for one thing, but doing another; not practising what you preach
Often a form of the ad hominem/getting personal argument
64
hypothesis
a statement to be confirmed or refuted by evidence or counterexample
differs from an assertion because it puts forward with a view to its being verified/falsified
65
iff
logicians' shorthand for 'if and only if'
66
ignoratio elenchi
missing the point
Latin name
67
imply / infer
precise but different meanings to one another
'all women are mortal' and 'you are a woman' imply* the conclusion
I the conclusion
only a person can infer something; a premise cannot
68
inappropriate precision
giving information or figures to a greater degree of apparent accuracy than suits the context
a form of rhetoric
69
induction
a method of reasoning in which true premises provide good grounds for believing the conclusion, but not certainty that it is true
can never be valid like deductive arguments can
70
informal fallacy
any faulty or unreliable type of argument apart from a formal fallacy
may be perfectly valid forms of arguments in terms of their logical structure
71
irrelevance
shifting discussion away from the point at issue by bringing in matters which don't relate directly to it
72
'it never did me any harm'
common and irritating form of rash generalisation
73
jargon
specialist terminology associated with a particular profession or area of interest
almost always used in a pejorative sense
74
knock-down argument
An argument which completely refutes a position
Equivalent of a Knockout punch in boxing
E.g. an argument against relativism that all truths are relative means this true is relative too
75
kowtowing
Being overly deferential
Uncritical acceptance of other people's ideas leads to mental stagnation
76
lawyer's answer
Responding to direct questions in a way that is factually accurate yet misleading
Deliberately misleading
Similar to being economical with the truth
77
least worst option
A choice that may not be attractive but is the best of those available
78
lexical definitions
= dictionary definitions
79
lying
writing or saying something which you know or believe to be untrue
can undermine the trust between people, making communication harder
80
modus ponens
affirming the antecedent
Latin name
81
modus tollens
denying the consequent
Latin name
82
necessary and sufficient conditions
a necessary condition is a prerequisite
according to some, it is a necessary condition for a work of art to be an artefact, but not a sufficient condition as my shed is not a work of art
83
newspeak
from George Orwell's 1984
makes some things unthinkable - sexcrime means you cannot think about any sex as good
84
no hypotheticals move
a rhetorical technique used to avoid answering awkward questions about what might happen
85
non sequitur
a statement which does not follow logically from the premises which precede it
86
Ockham's razor
a principle of simplicity
the simple explanation is the best
87
paradox
An unacceptable conclusion derived by seemingly unassailable reasoning from apparently uncontroversial premises
A precise philosophical term
88
pedantry
A niggling and inappropriate concern with detail, often at the expense of what is really important
Always used in a pejorative sense
89
persuader words
Words such as 'surely' and 'clearly' whose main role is to persuade the reader/listener of the truth of what is being asserted
Used for rhetorical effect
90
persuasive definition
A form of rhetoric
A word is defined in a particularly emotive way
The definition is then used to reach the desired conclusion of the discussion
91
petitio principii
begging the question
Latin name
92
poisoning the well
Indirectly denigrating a position by preemptively ridiculing it's source
Common form of rhetoric: 'only a fool could believe that'
93
politician's answer
A type of irrelevance
Used by public figures in interviews
Avoid giving direct answers to questions they don't have the answers to
94
post hoc ergo propter hoc
'After this therefore because of this'
Latin
e.g. whatever happened after this must have happened because of this
95
prejudice
a belief held without good reason or consideration of the evidence for or against its being true
96
premises
suppositions from which conclusions are derived
parts of an argument which give reason for believing that the conclusion is true or false
97
proof by ignorance
Informal fallacy
A lack of known evidence against a belief is taken as an indication that it is true
98
provincialism
Generalising about the right way to behave on the basis of how people behave in your locale
The name embodies prejudice against people living in the provinces
99
pseudo-profundity
Uttering statements which appear deep but which are not
1) stating nonsense statements in a serious manner
2) banal statements by professionals - psychologists
3) leaving rhetorical questions hanging
100
quibbling
pedantry
101
rash generalisation
A general statement based on insufficient evidence
102
rationalisation
Disguising the real reason for acting in a particular way by giving self-serving justification which, even if plausible, is not true
103
red herrings
A form of irrelevance which leads the unwary off on a false trail
E.g. deliberate introduction of irrelevant topics into a discussion
104
reductio ad absurdum - technical meaning
In logic, proving a particular statement by supposing for the sake of the argument that it is false, and show that this leads to a contradiction
Rarely used in everyday argument
105
Reductio ad absurdum - common meaning
Refuting a position by showing that it would lead to absurd consequences if true
106
refutation
proof that a statement, allegation or charge is untrue
107
repudiation
denying that a statement is true
does not require evidence
108
'research has shown that'
A phrase used to persuade the listener that the speaker can back up what they are saying with firm empirical evidence
Vague
109
rhetoric
The art of persuasion
Employing techniques to convince the listener/reader that what they say is the truth, rather than giving reasons and presenting arguments to support the conclusion
Nothing intrinsically wrong with it
110
rhetorical questions
Questions which are asked purely for effect rather than as requests for answers
111
sentimentality
Inappropriate emotion, or completely disproportionate to the situation
A way of avoiding unpleasant truths
Oscar Wilde: a sentimental person is one 'who desires to have the luxury of an emotion without paying for it'
112
shifting the goalposts
Changing what is being argued for in mid-debate
Very common move to avoid criticism
113
slippery slope argument
Relies on the premise that if you make a small move in a particular direction, it may then be extremely difficult if not impossible to prevent a much more substantial move in that direction
Some arguments also rely on a logical point about how if one small move in a particular direction is justified, then any number of such moves must also be justified
Denotes a sense of inevitability
Almost always used by critics rather than defenders
114
smokescreen
a rhetorical trick
an arguer disguises their ignorance behind a screen of meaningless jargon
115
Socratic fallacy
argument against the fallacy
mistaken belief that if you can't define a general term precisely, you won't be in any position to identify particular instances of it
an informal fallacy
no one can define 'beauty', but we can all identify a beautiful person
116
some/all confusion
an ambiguity which arises from the omission of the words 'some' and 'all' when the context does not make it clear which is intended
117
sophistry
a display of cleverness which doesn't respect the principles of good reasoning - reaches conclusions through sham argument
the term is always pejorative
118
sophists
ancient Greek teachers
supposedly more interested in teaching ways of winning arguments than ways of finding out the truth
119
sound argument
a valid argument with true premises and thus a true conclusion
120
spurious 'therefore' and spurious 'so'
an inappropriate use of the words (therefore, so) to persuade listeners or readers that something has been proven when it hasn't
it gives the superficial appearance of an argument, but is simply an assertion
121
stipulative definitions
Definitions which are the result of conscious and explicit decisions about how a word or phrase is to be used, rather than definitions based on the analysis of how words are usually used
122
straw man
A caricature of your opponent's view set up simply so that you can knock it down
The opposite of playing devil's advocate
123
sunk cost fallacy
Self-destructive tendency to carry on investing in a failing project, idea or enterprise on the grounds that you have already invested heavily in it
124
supposition
A premise assumed for the sake of argument but not necessarily believed
Also known as presupposition
125
'that's a fallacy'
Falsely accusing someone of committing a fallacy
126
'that's a value judgement'
A statement mistakenly used to silence debate, due to the assumption that value judgements cannot be used in rational argument
Value judgement: e.g. 'a great play'
A self-refuting statement
127
thought experiment
An imaginary situation, often far-fetched, intended to clarify a particular issue
Pushes you out of your comfort zone
128
truth by adage
The mistake of relying on familiar sayings instead of thinking
129
truth by authority
Taking statements to be true because an alleged authority on the matter said they are true
Experts may disagree; they have a narrow area of expertise
130
truth by consensus
Taking statements to be true simply because they are agreed upon
131
tu quoque
Latin phrase
Means 'you too'
A variation of the 'companions in guilt' move
132
universal expertise
Proficiency in one field taken as an indicator of proficiency in an unrelated one
133
vagueness
Lack of precision
Relative to context
An obstacle to efficient communication
134
validity
The truth-preserving quality of good deductive arguments
A quality of the structure of arguments
135
Van Gogh fallacy
A form of wishful thinking
Sharing some relatively common attribute with someone great in no way guarantees your greatness
Takes its name from the case: Van Gogh was poor & misunderstood in his lifetime, yet he is now a recognised artist; I am poor and misunderstood, so I will also be recognused eventually
136
vested interest
Having a personal investment in the outcome of a discussion: standing to gain if a particular conclusion is reached
137
weasel words
words that seem to promise more than they can deliver
mere rhetoric
138
wishful thinking
Believing that because it would be nice if something were true, then it must actually be true
A form of self-deception at its extreme
Can be dangerous
139
you too
a variety of the companions in guilt move
the equivalent of saying that a criticism applies to your position as well as my position
140
'you would say that wouldn't you'
a particular kind of getting personal
the phrase is used to undermine the credibility of the speaker by pointing out vested interest
141
zig-zagging
jumping from one topic to another in a discussion as a defence against criticism
the topics tend to be relevant; used as a form of rhetoric to avoid facing criticism
