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Test 1 Flashcards

1
Q

How is genetics important to individuals? (1.1)

A

• genes influence our lives
• genes contribute to personality
• genes are fundamental to who and what we are

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2
Q

How is genetics important to society? (1.1)

A

• genes are important in agriculture
• major crops and animals have undergone genetic alteration to increase yields and provide desirable traits
• develop and mass-produce substances

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3
Q

How is genetics important to a biology student?

A

To understand:
1. Evolution
2. Developmental biology (tissue and organs develop thru expression of genes
3. Taxonomy, ecology and animal behavior

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4
Q

What is a genome?

A

Complete set of genetic instructions for any organism

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5
Q

What encodes a genome?

A

Either DNA or RNA

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6
Q

When is a genome copied?

A

During process of replication

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7
Q

How does genetics relate to evolution?

A

Coding for genetic information is the same in ALL living organisms. Soo all organisms are thought to have evolved from a common ancestor

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8
Q

What are some implications that all organisms have similar genetic systems?

A
  1. all life forms are genetically related.
  2. research findings on one organism’s gene function can often be applied to other organisms
  3. Genes from one organism can often exist and thrive in another organism
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9
Q

What is transmission genetics?

A

• how traits are passed from one generation to the next
• parent to offspring
• FOCUS on individual organisms

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10
Q

What is molecular genetics?

A

• chemical nature of the gene
• how genetic info is encoded, replicated, and expressed
• FOCUS: the gene/genome and its structure, organization, and function

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11
Q

What is population genetics?

A

• the genetic composition of populations (gene pools)
• how gene pools change geographically and with time
• FOCUS: genes and frequencies of their alleles found in a population NOT on individuals

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12
Q

What are model genetic organisms?

A

Organisms with characteristics that make them useful for genetic analysis

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13
Q

What are the 6 commonly used model organisms?

A
  1. Drosophila melanogaster (fruit fly)
  2. Escherichia coli (bacterium)
  3. C. elegans (nematode)
  4. Arabidopsis thaliana (Thale-cress plant)
  5. Mus musculus (house mouse)
  6. Saccharomyces cerevisiae (baker’s yeast)
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14
Q

What are common characteristics of model genetic organisms?

A
  1. short generation time (faster reproduction)
  2. Production of numerous progeny (multiple sets of offspring over time)
  3. Can control and make genetic crosses
  4. Can measure results in a lab and controlled environment
  5. Lots of genetic variants
  6. Has been studied before and there is a wide knowledge on the organism
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15
Q

What is pangenesis?

A

the concept that each part of the body contains its genetic information. Gemmules carry the info from the parts of the body to the reproductive organs. This info is passed to the embryo during conception

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16
Q

What is Lamarckianism?

A

AKA: inheritance of acquired characteristics
Belief that if you do something during your lifetime, it would be passed to the offspring.

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17
Q

What is preformationism?

A

Belief that the egg or sperm has a tiny, fully formed human (a homunculus). It enlarged in the course of development. This is inherited from only one parent.

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18
Q

What is blending inheritance?

A

Traits of offspring are a blend/mixture of parental traits. NOT a blend of info at a molecular level.

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19
Q

In order, who contributed to the rise of genetics?

A
  1. Gregor Mendel
  2. Schleiden and Schwann
  3. Flemming
  4. Darwin
  5. Weismann
  6. Sutton
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20
Q

What did Gregor Mendel do?

A

• Discovered the basic principles of heredity
• laid the foundation for our modern understanding of heredity
• recognized as the father of genetics

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21
Q

What did Scleiden and Schwann discover?

A

Cell Theory:
1. All life composed of cells
2. Cells arise only preexisting cells
3. Cells are the fundamental unit of structure and function in living organisms

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22
Q

What did Flemming do?

A
  • observed the division of chromosomes in 1879
  • published description of mitosis.
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23
Q

What did Darwin discover?

A
  • put forth the theory of evolution through national selection
  • published his ideas in On the Origin of Species in 1859
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24
Q

What did Weismann discover?

A

THE GERM PLASM THEORY
- cells in reproductive organs carry a complete set of genetic information that is passed to the egg and sperm
- no more acquired characteristics

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25
What did Walter Sutton discover? (1877-1916)
- genes are units of inheritance - genes located on chromosomes
26
What did Thomas Hunt Morgan discover (1877-1916)?
FATHER OF FRUIT FLY GENETICS - discovered the first mutant fruit fly in 1910 - used fruit flies to unravel transmission genetics
27
What did Fisher, Haldane, and Wright discover?
- They laid the foundation for population genetics by integrating Mendelian genetics and evolutionary theory.
28
What is the Cell Theory?
All life if composed of cells and cells arise only from cells
29
What is Mendelian inheritance?
the transmission of inherited characters from generation to generation through the transmission of genes
30
What do genes make up?
The genome
31
What are genes encoded in?
DNA
32
What are gene variants called?
Alleles
33
Where are genes located on?
chromosomes
34
What are histones?
Proteins found in eukaryotes that help regulate the accessibility of DNA to enzymes and other proteins that copy and read DNA. - Enable DNA to fit into the nucleus
35
What are the key components of prokaryotes?
- no nucleus - one circular DNA molecule - not complexed with histones in bacteria - no membrane-bounded organelles
36
What are key component of eukaryotic cells?
- have a nucleus - have membrane-bounded organelles
37
What are the key components of viruses?
- not cellular, no cell structure - neither prokaryotic or eukaryotic - outer protein coat surrounding nucleic acid (DNA or RNA) - can only reproduce within host cell
38
What are the steps of prokaryotic cell reproduction?
By BINARY FISSION 1. start at origin of replication 2. as the chromosome relocated, the origins segregate to opposite sides 3. Binary fission begins with a DNA copy in each 4. Cell divides. New cell wall form between the two chromosomes. Producing two cells, containing an identical copy of the chromo
39
What are diploid cells?
They carry two sets of genetic info on pairs of homologous chromosomes (2n)
40
What are haploid cells?
(n) They carry one set of genetic info. Could be reproductive or somatic cells.
41
What is a centromere?
The attachment point that contain the kinetochore for spindle microtubules to attach to
42
What are telomeres?
They are the ends of linear chromosomes. They protect and stabilize the chromosome ends.
43
What is the origin of replication?
Where DNA synthesis begins.
44
What are sister chromatids?
Two IDENTICAL copies of a chromosome that are held together at the centromere. Each sister chromatid consists of a single molecule of DNA.
45
Where is a submetacentric centromere located?
A little above the middle
46
Where is a metacentric centromere located?
Right in the middle
47
Where is a telocentric centromere located?
On the telomeres
48
Where is a Arcocentric centromere located?
Little below the telomeres
49
What are the steps to the cell cycle?
1. G1 - (G0) 2. G1/S phase 3. S phase 4. G2 5. G2/M checkpoint 6. M phase (mitosis)
50
What are the purpose of cell cycle checkpoints?
Allow or prohibit the cells progression to the next stage
51
What are the steps in interphase?
G1, S, G2
52
What is cytokinesis?
Cytoplasmic division
53
What happens in mitosis?
Sister chromatids separate in 5 steps.
54
What are the 5 steps of mitosis?
P.P.M.A.T 1. Prophase 2. Prometaphase 3. Metaphase 4. Anaphase 5. Telophase
55
What are tublin subunits?
They make up the microtubules
56
What are the products of mitosis?
• Two cells that are genetically identical to each other • each new cell contains 1/2 the cytoplasm and organelle content of the original parent cell • 2n
57
At what stage of mitosis does the number of chromosomes double?
Anaphase. Then numbers splits in half in telophase and cytokinesis
58
What is meiosis?
Leads to the production of haploid gametes or spore • produced genetically variable cells
59
What is fertilization in meiosis?
The fusion of haploid gametes
60
What happens in meiosis I?
• separation of homologous chromosome pairs • reduction of the chromosome number by half (reduction division) 2n—> n
61
What happens in meiosis II?
• separation of sister chromatids • also known as equational division n —> n
62
What are the steps of meiosis I?
1. Prophase I 2. Metaphase I 3. Anaphase I 4. Telophase I
63
What is process between meiosis I and II called?
Interkinesis
64
What is a the chiasmata?
• where the 2 chromos cross
65
What are the products of meiosis?
• 4 haploid cells • n
66
In what cell division process does crossing over happen?
ONLY in meiosis 1
67
What is cohesin?
• ring like, protein complex structure that holds the chromatids together • key to the behavior of chromosomes in mitosis and meiosis
68
What breaks down cohesin?
Separase
69
What does the breakdown of cohesin allow?
It allows sister chromatids to separate
70
What are the key points to Gregor Mendel’s successful experiment?
• proper experimental model • studied easily differentiated characteristics • used an experimental approach and analyzed results mathematically
71
what is an allele?
one of two or more alternative forms of a gene
72
What are homozygous chromosomes?
Have two identical alleles
73
What is the locus on a chromosome?
The position on a chromosome
74
What is true breeding?
Homozygous genes AA or aa
75
What are reciprocal crosses?
Produce equivalent results for Mendels traits regardless if allele came from male or female
76
What is Mendel’s first law?
Principle of segregation
77
What is the principle of segregation?
the two alleles separate during meiosis. One allele goes into each gamete.
78
What’s is a backcross Punnett square?
A cross between a F1 generation and the parental chromosome
79
What is a testcross?
To reveal an unknown allele Crossing of a homozygous recessive (tt) with T_ (TT or Tt) Tt= 1:1 (Tt:tt) TT= all Tt
80
What is the Principle of independent assortment?
Genes located on different chromosomes will be sorted independently These genes don’t interact with each other
81
What is a dihybrid cross?
A cross between two individuals that differ in two characteristics RRYY x rryy
82
How do you calculate the number of possible genotypic classes?
3^n n= # of genes
83
How do you calculate the number of phenotypic classes?
2^n n= # of genes
84
How do you calculate the different gametic genotypes that a diploid can produce?
AaBBCcDdee 2•1•2•2•1=8 different types of gametes Aa can produce 2 BB can produce 1
85
From AaBBCcDdee what fraction of gametic genotypes will be either ABCDe OR aBCDe?
1. 1/2 • 1 • 1/2 • 1/2 • 1 = 1/8 2. 1/2 • 1 • 1/2 • 1/2 • 1 = 1/8 3. Add the probabilities of each together 1/8 + 1/8 = 1/4
86
What does the principle of segregation say?
It says that alleles separate
87
What does independent assortment say?
That alleles separate independently of alleles at other loci
88
Where and when does the principle of segregation and independent assortment happen?
In anaphase one of meiosis
89
What is anisogamy?
different size gametes
90
What are autosomes?
2 homologs that look similar They are not sex chromosomes
91
What are the primary and secondary pseudoautosomal regions?
Where the X and Y chromosomes are homologous. They are essential in chromosome pairing in the MALE
92
What is homogametic sex?
When the sex can only produce one type of gamete XX , ZZ
93
What is heterogametic sex?
When the sex produces two types of gametes XY , ZW
94
What are the sex chromosomes of MALE birds, some reptiles and moths?
ZZ
95
What are the sex chromosomes of FEMALE birds, some reptiles and moths?
ZW
96
What is monoecious?
both male and female reproductive structures in the same organism Ex: corn, nematodes
97
What is dioecious?
Species that have either male or female reproductive structures Ex. mammals and birds
98
What is the SRY gene?
A gene located on Y chromosome and produces a testis. Triggers make development This is the determining factor at about 6 weeks gestation in humans
99
What is genic sex determination?
• They have no sex chromosomes • genotypes at one or more loci determine the sex examples: fungi and fishes
100
How can the environment determine sex?
the environment can affect if eggs develop into female or male
101
What is sequential hermaphroditism?
When an individual animal can be both male or female, but NOT at the same time
102
What is aneuploidy?
When there are extra or missing chromosomes from the typical genome
103
What is Turner’s syndrome?
• FEMALE is missing an X chromo (XO) • fertility suffers • short stature, webbed neck
104
What is Klinefelter syndrome?
• MALE has more than one X chromosome (XXY, XXXY) • tall stature, some breast development
105
What is hemizygous?
When there’s only one copy of a gene in an otherwise diploid genotype
106
What is dosage compensation?
Mechanism to equalize the amount of protein by X-linked genes and autosomal genes Ex: mammals, random inactivation of one X chromo
107
What are Barr bodies?
Inactivated X chromosome Dark staining in the nuclei of most cells of female placental mammals
108
What is the Lyon hypothesis?
In each female cell, one of two X chromosomes is inactivated. • random inactivation • all but one X chromosome is inactivated
109
What is gene dosage compensation like in fruit flies?
the single X in males produces twice the amount gene product that each female X produces
110
What is gene dosage compensation like in nematodes?
The two Xs in hermaphrodites limit the gene product amount to half.
111
What is non disjunction?
When homologous chromosomes or sister chromatids fail to separate in meiosis or mitosis
112
What is mosaicism?
When a organism has two or more genetically different sets of cells
113
What ratio in flies creates females?
1.0
114
What ratio in flies creates a male?
0.5
115
What ratio range creates an intersex fly?
0.5-1.0
116
What is an intersex fly?
A fly with male and female characteristics
117
What ratio creates a metamale?
Less than 0.5
118
What ratio creates a meta female?
Greater than 1.0
119
How do you find the ratio of X in flies?
# of X chromosomes/# of haploid sets of autosomes

Genetics (11 decks)

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