Test 1 Flashcards
(92 cards)
1
Q
What is science?
A
Science is a method of inquiry, and a way of exploring/understanding the world
2
Q
What are the characteristics of scientific inquiry?
A
Scientific inquiry is:
- Methodical
- Empirical
- Objective
- Logical
3
Q
Define “methodical research”
A
Methodical research means research that is organized/structure.
Research that is conducted using a consistent process to avoid making unfounded conclusions
4
Q
Define “empirical research”
A
Empirical research means research that is reliant on evidence acquired through experimentation/observation.
Evidence must be observable, measurable, and independently verified
5
Q
Define “objective research”
A
Objective research means research that is conducted by unbiased researchers without any preconceived notions/ideas
Objective research maintains integrity and draws impartial conclusions.
6
Q
Define “logical research”
A
Logical research means that conclusions are drawn based on connections between evidence and hypotheses.
To construct valid scientific theories, researchers must follow the evidence!
7
Q
What is methodology?
A
Methodology is a set of practices/techniques used to collect, process, and interpret info aimed at enhancing our understanding of reality
8
Q
What are the 2 different realities in science?
A
The 2 realities in science are:
- Agreement reality
- Experiential reality
9
Q
What is agreement reality?
A
Agreement reality is information that we accept as true based on the consensus of others
Ex: cultural norms, widely accepted scientific “facts”
10
Q
What is experiential reality?
A
Experiential reality is information we accept because of our own firsthand experiences
Ex: touching ice; I know ice is cold because I have touched it before
11
Q
What are the two different kinds of reasoning?
A
- Causal reasoning
- Probabilistic reasoning
12
Q
What is causal reasoning?
A
Causal reasoning means identifying cause-and-effect relationships
Ex: A doctor notices that patients who eat a lot of sugary foods tend to develop cavities. Based on this, the doctor concludes that eating sugary foods causes cavities.
13
Q
What is probabilistic reasoning?
A
Probabilistic reasoning means identifying the likelihood that a particular outcome will occur based on given evidence; making educated guesses based on previous observations.
Ex: If you flip a coin, there’s a 50% chance it will land on heads. While you can’t predict the outcome of each flip, probabilistic reasoning tells you that over many flips, about half will land on heads.
14
Q
What are the 2 types of predictions that we make?
A
- Clinical prediction
- Actuarial prediction
15
Q
What is a clinical prediction?
A
A clinical prediction is an expert’s subjective judgement/experience to assess/predict outcomes
Ex: A veterinarian examines a kitten and, based on their experience and intuition, predicts that the kitten will likely grow up healthy because it looks active and well-fed.
16
Q
What is an actuarial prediction?
A
An actuarial prediction is an estimation of likely future events made using data/statistical models
Ex: A computer program analyzes data from thousands of kittens and predicts that a kitten of a certain breed, weight, and age has a 90% chance of growing up healthy, based on patterns from other kittens with similar traits.
17
Q
What are the 2 ways that we accept knowledge?
A
The 2 ways that we accept knowledge are through culture (having knowledge passed down to us), or through authority (supposed experts who tell us knowledge)
18
Q
What are the 4 errors in inquiry?
A
- Inaccurate observations
- Overgeneralization
- Selective observations
- Illogical reasoning
19
Q
What are inaccurate observations?
A
Inaccurate observations occur when you observe something incorrectly or miss important details, leading to wrong conclusions.
Ex: You might remember seeing someone wear a blue shirt when they were actually wearing a red one.
20
Q
What is overgeneralization?
A
Overgeneralization is taking a specific example/experience and wrongly applying it to all similar situations
Ex: If one dog barks at you, you assume all dogs are aggressive.
21
Q
What are selective observations?
A
Selective observations occur when you ignore data that does not fit our perceived pattern (confirmation bias)
Ex: You believe all teenagers are rude, so you only notice the rude ones while ignoring the polite ones.
22
Q
What is illogical reasoning?
A
Illogical reasoning involves making conclusions that are unsupported/lack evidence (like the Gambler’s Fallacy)
Ex: Assuming if two things happen together, one must have caused the other (like believing eating ice cream causes sunburn because both often happen on sunny days).
23
Q
What is Gambler’s Fallacy?
A
Gambler’s Fallacy is the belief that random events “balance out” over time.
24
Q
What are the 2 ways that we experience the world?
A
- Concrete experiences
- Abstract experiences
- Reality comes from a combination of concrete and abstract experiences
25
What are concrete experiences?
Concrete experiences are empirical (direct observations/encounters) and involve the 5 senses
Ex: Touching an object, listening to someone speak, or riding a bike
26
What are abstract experiences?
Abstract experiences are imaginary, occuring in the mind
Ex: Solving a math problem, thinking about justice, or planning for the future.
27
What are the foundations of social science?
1. Provide an understanding of reality that makes sense
2. Provide an understanding of reality that corresponds with what can empirically be observed
28
What are concepts?
Concepts are mental categories where we organize our abstract ideas about the world
Ex: the concept of fruit contains apples, bananas, pears, etc.
29
What are propositions?
Propositions are statements that express a relationship between concepts
Ex: apples are fruits
30
What is a relationship?
Relationships are when a change in one thing/variable results in a systematic change in another
Ex: When the temperature increases (variable 1), the rate at which ice melts (variable 2) also increases. As the temperature rises, ice absorbs heat, leading to a systematic change from solid to liquid.
31
What are components?
Components are individual parts of concrete experiences = variables
32
What are the 2 types of explanation?
- Idiographic
- Nomothetic
33
What is an idiographic explanation?
Idiographic explanations focus on understanding the unique, individual aspects of a particular case or event, emphasizing depth and detail.
Ex: A psychologist examines a patient’s unique experiences and history to understand their depression.
34
What is a nomothetic explanation?
Nomothetic explanations focus on understanding general details that can apply to many cases.
Ex: A sociologist studies socioeconomic status and educational attainment trends across a large population.
35
What are the two forms of reasoning?
- Inductive reasoning
- Deductive reasoning
36
What is inductive reasoning?
Inductive reasoning involves drawing general conclusions based on specific observations or evidence; starting with specific data or findings and developing a broader theory or hypothesis from them.
Ex: After observing that several individuals with a particular trait behave in a similar way, a researcher might conclude that this trait influences behavior.
Specific observations → General theory
37
What is deductive reasoning?
Deductive reasoning starts with a general theory or hypothesis and tests it through specific observations or experiments; researchers formulate a hypothesis based on existing theories and then designs an experiment to confirm/refute that hypothesis.
Ex: If a researcher hypothesizes that "all humans need water to survive," they might conduct experiments to test this assumption across different populations or conditions.
General theory → Specific observations
38
What is the difference between pure and applied research?
Pure research is inquiry for the sake of inquiry. It is fuelled by the desire to understand something that was previously unknowable, whereas applied research is inquiry for the purpose of improving life
Ex: studying sea turtles to understand their natural behaviour, vs studying ocean temperatures to see how ocean temperature affects the nesting success of loggerhead turtles to inform conservation strategies
39
How is reality discovered?
Reality is discovered using:
- Direct observations and experiences (being in the world)
- Tradition (culture)
- Authority (people of power)
- Science (scientific inquiry)*
* Scientific inquiry is the only method that can help us to avoid making mistakes
40
What is the scientific method (according to the textbook)?
1. Make observation
2. Ask a question
3. Form a hypothesis
4. Conduct an experiment to test hypothesis
5. Retain/reject hypothesis based on results of the experiment
*5a. Form a new hypothesis if the 1st one was rejected
41
What are the key components of scientific research studies?
The key components of scientific research studies are:
- Research question (significant to life → specific!)
- Theory (rules to determine what is happening)
- Data (reliable)
- Analysis (assess hypotheses)
42
What is data?
Data are systematically collected elements of information
Often called evidence
* Not always numbers!
43
What is post-hoc theorizing?
Post-hoc theorizing is "after-the-fact" theorizing → making your conclusions fit your data
44
What is used to find cause-and-effect?
Attributes and variables are used to find cause and effect
Researchers change one thing (the independent variable) to see how it affects another thing (the dependent variable), while keeping other factors the same. By looking at these changes, they can figure out if one thing causes another and how certain factors affect results.
45
What are values?
Values refer to the possible answers or characteristics that a variable can take (possible data points)
Ex: If the variable is "academic performance," the values might be 65%, 88%, or 92%.
46
What are attributes?
Attributes are characteristics/qualities of a social actor
Ex: A student’s attributes include being hardworking, organized, and creative, which influence their approach to studying and completing assignments
47
What are variables?
Variables are a logical grouping of attributes
Ex: Variables for students might include "academic performance," which could logically group attributes such as study habits, class participation, and test scores.
48
What are units of analysis?
Units of analysis refer to the main entities or subjects being studied in research. Researchers analyze these subjects to gather data and draw conclusions.
49
What are the main units of analysis?
- Individuals
- Groups (families, classes, gangs, etc.)
- Political units (cities, countries, counties, etc.)
- Organizations and industries
- Social artifacts (poems, symbols, etc.)
50
What is the logic of causation?
The logic of causation means that a change in one variable results in a change in another
We are interested in knowing if X affects Y
51
What are the main problems with observations when there is no research question?
1. Without a guiding RQ, it's hard to know what's important/significant
2. Without a guiding RQ, we default to our common sense (bias)
52
True or False: Theory is built into observation
True!
We cannot observe the world without previous understanding; theory guides all inquiries, and theory and observation are intertwined
53
What does "ontology recapitulates methodology" mean?
"Ontology recapitulates methodology" means that our vision of reality is shaped by the methods we use to observe it.
Reality is shaped by:
- Background assumptions (common sense)
- Technical instruments (ex: human eyes cannot see certain things liked UV rays)
* The tools and techniques we use to study the world shape our perceptions and interpretations of it
54
What is a problem?
A problem is a logical inconsistency; a contradiction between our supposed knowledge and the supposed facts
55
What is the #1 requirement of science?
Science MUST be open to criticism, AND it must be opened to being changed by criticism
* Conjecture provokes criticism/refutation, but criticisms/refutations provoke conjecture too
56
What are paradigms?
Paradigms are sets of assumptions that shape our perspectives about the world; they are fundamental frameworks/sets of beliefs that shape our understanding/interpretation of the world.
Paradigms include the theories, methods, and standards that guide how questions are approached and how knowledge is constructed
Oftentimes, we only notice paradigms when they begin to conflict with what we know about the world/other paradigms
Paradigms cannot collapse without another one taking its place → you cannot have NO paradigm
* Paradigms are neither right nor wrong, they are just different ways of seeing the world
** Paradigms ARE mutually exclusive and are ALWAYS competing with one another
57
What is positivism?
Positivism is the idea that society is a thing with rules that can be studied scientifically
58
What are the 3 theoretical focuses?
- Symbolic interactionism
- Structural functionalism
- Conflict theory
59
What is symbolic interactionism?
Symbolic interactionism is the idea that meaning is derived though interactions between individuals. It is focused on how small interactions can impact society.
* Microtheory
60
What is structural functionalism?
Structural functionalism is the idea that all institutions must work together to create a healthy society. It is focused on how groups can impact society.
* Macrotheory
61
What is conflict theory?
Conflict theory is the idea that all institutions are competing for power/domination. It is focused on how groups compete with each other.
* Macrotheory
62
How do we objectively decide what is real (without biasing it)?
Reality exists outside ourselves; we can say that something is "real" when other people agree with us. This is called "intersubjectivity"
63
What are social facts?
Social facts are things that are perceived to be both external and coercive, meaning they exist outside of individual choices and can exert influence over individuals' behaviors and beliefs within a society.
* Social facts exist independently of individual choices; you can't just make up a social fact - everybody has to agree on it (loony/toony example)
64
What are the building blocks of a theory?
1. Concepts (variables)
- Turning general concepts into measurable elements
- Factors affecting measurement: dependence on other organizations, uncertainty, strength of professional norms
2. Axioms
- Fundamental assertions taken to be true
- Basis on which a theory is grounded
3. Propositions
- Explanations of relationships between concepts
- Propositions are refined in order to develop hypotheses (testable expectations derived from propositions)
4. Mechanisms
- Reasons that said relationships exist
- The "Why"
- Different interpretations of a relationship between concepts
* Concepts → Axioms → Propositions → Mechanisms
65
What problematic assumptions are made about the inductive/deductive models?
The deductive model assumes that a theory must be fully formed at the outset. This is not always true → if we knew what we were looking for, we wouldn't need to do the research
The inductive model assumes that we move from theory to no theory (when actually, we move from worse theory to better theory)
66
Why is uncertainty important in science?
Uncertainty is a healthy instinct because it keeps you open to criticism from the world (and gives you a possibility for your ideas to be tested)
67
What additional factors affect whether or not you "win" scientific arguments?
- Rhetoric (how well/convincingly you write)
- Status (how known/respected you are)
68
What is the process for scientific evolution?
We begin pre-science. During this phase, people begin to come to an agreement with shared assumptions →
This turns into "normal science" (a base set of assumptions that everyone accepts without argument = the existing paradigm) →
Once that paradigm is established, anomalies in the paradigm begin to pile up.
Initially, people ignore everything that doesn't fit neatly within the paradigm, but eventually, a crisis erupts →
When the crisis erupts, the paradigm is restructured, creating a scientific revolution, and the cycle continues
69
What are the 3 stages of research?
1. Exploration (gaining familiarity with a topic, and exploring unsolved problems/phenomena)
2. Description (gathering the facts/data)
3. Explanation (explaining why; interpreting our data to explain the phenomena and causation)
70
What are causal criteria?
Causal criteria are the criteria required for an explanation to be considered "adequate"
71
What are the 3 causal criteria?
1. Correlation (an observed, actual relationship between 2 variables)
2. Time order (causal event (X) must happen before the effect (Y))
3. Nonspurious (there must not be a 3rd extraneous variable)
72
What are false causal criteria?
False causal criteria are mistakes/false assumptions that people make when trying to determine causality
73
What are the 3 false causal criteria?
1. Complete causation: assuming that a relationship is only causal if it applies to every case in your scenario
Ex: Believing smoking is the only cause of lung cancer, when other factors like genetics also play a role.
2. Exceptional cases: believing that exceptions disprove the general causal relationship.
Ex: Dismissing the health risks of a poor diet because one person lived to 100 despite unhealthy eating habits.
3. Majority of cases: expecting that a cause must produce the effect in most cases to be considered valid.
Ex: Assuming that since most people with high cholesterol develop heart disease, everyone with high cholesterol will do so.
74
What is a necessary condition?
A condition that must be present for a certain outcome to occur, but on its own may not be enough to produce the outcome.
* A necessary condition = something that is required for an event to happen
Ex: Oxygen is a necessary condition for fire to occur, but by itself, oxygen doesn't cause fire
75
What is a sufficient condition?
A condition that, if present, guarantees the outcome, but is not always required for the outcome to happen.
* A sufficient condition = everything that is required for an event to happen
Ex: Having oxygen, fuel, and a spark together is sufficient to start a fire, as all these elements combined will result in a fire.
76
What are the main problems with units of analysis?
1. Ecological Fallacy
2. Exception Fallacy
3. Psychological Reductionism
77
Define "Ecological Fallacy"
Ecological Fallacy occurs when you apply group observations to an individual case
Ex: If a city has a high average income, assuming that every person in that city is wealthy would be an ecological fallacy, since individual incomes could vary widely within the city.
78
Define "Exception Fallacy"
Exception Fallacy occurs when you apply individual observations to a group
Ex: If a teacher observes one student from a particular school who performs poorly on a test and then concludes that the entire school's students are academically weak, this is an exception fallacy
79
Define "Psychological Reductionism"
Psychological Reductionism occurs when you assume that the whole is the sum of its parts → it is the misguided assumption that you can explain group phenomena by looking at an individual
Ex: Explaining a student's academic struggles solely in terms of their cognitive abilities, ignoring other factors like emotional well-being, social environment, or family background. This approach fails to consider the broader context that influences a student's success.
80
What are cross-secctional studies?
Cross-sectional studies are studies wherein data is collected at a single point in time. This data comes from measuring the members of one sample from a larger population. It is difficult to draw causation with these studies, since the data is only from a specific instance in time.
81
What are longitudinal studies?
Longitudinal studies are studies wherein data is collected multiple times over a longer period of time
82
What are the 4 different types of longitudinal studies?
1. Trend
2. Cohort
3. Panel
4. Panel cohort
83
What are trend studies?
A trend study examines changes in a particular phenomenon over time within a population, often using different samples at each point in time. (basically multiple cross-sectional studies)
Ex: A researcher analyzes survey data from different high school students over the past decade to assess changes in their mental health awareness and coping strategies.
84
What are cohort studies?
A cohort study focuses on a specific group of individuals who share a common characteristic or experience over a set period, tracking their outcomes or changes.
Ex: A study tracks a group of students who started kindergarten in the same year to observe their academic performance and social skills development throughout their school years.
85
What are panel studies?
A panel study involves collecting data from the same subjects repeatedly over time to observe changes and trends in their behaviors or attitudes.
*These studies are relatively rare because it is difficult to follow the same group of people for a long time, and it is very expensive $$$
Ex: A researcher conducts annual interviews with a group of college students to examine how their career aspirations evolve over their four years of study.
86
What are panel cohort studies?
A panel cohort study combines elements of both cohort and panel studies by observing a specific cohort over time with repeated measures on the same individuals to assess changes in various outcomes.
Ex: A study follows a cohort of recent graduates, collecting data on their employment status and mental health annually for five years to explore the long-term effects of job market conditions on well-being.
87
What is phenomenology?
Phenomenology is the philosophy/belief that reality is based on objects/events as they are perceive/understood in human consciousness
* The idea that reality = the perceptions of human beings
88
What is ontology?
Ontology is the study of what exists and the nature of those entities, focusing on the essence of reality itself, which distinguishes it from phenomenology, which emphasizes how individuals perceive and understand that reality.
89
According to Davis, what does it take for a theory to be interesting?
In order to be interesting, a theory has to "attack" things that we take for granted → it must deny/go against old truths/existing paradigms
* Exposing a gap between perception and reality
90
What are the 12 characteristics of Davis' Index of the Interesting for understanding our perception of phenomena?
1. Organization
2. Composition
3. Abstraction
4. Generalization
5. Stabilization
6. Function
7. Evaluation
8. Co-relation
9. Co-existence
10. Co-variation
11. Opposition
12. Causation
91
What are the 2 types of research questions?
1. Problem solving question
2. Problem creating/identifying question
92
What are the 3 failures to be interesting?
1. Affirming assumptions (not challenging any common sense, just restating what is already known)
2. Ignoring audience assumptions (overlooking audience's ideas about a subject)
3. Rejecting entire worldview (throwing out a paradigm without any explanation)
