Test #1 Flashcards by Bailey Sturdivant

A branching diagram showing the inferred evolutionary relationship among various species based on similarities/differences in their characteristics

phylogenetic tree

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What 3 things do we often use to construct a phylogenetic tree?

morphological data
biochemical data
molecular data

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each species in a phylogenetic tree

taxon

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closest taxa (sharing recent common ancestor)

sister taxa

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the point on a phylogenetic tree where lineages diverge

branch point

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equally close taxa (unresolved pattern of divergence); more than 2 descendant groups branched at one point

polytomy

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1st lineage (branch) in a phylogenetic tree (branch early in history)

basal taxon

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the system of naming and classifying organisms

taxonomy

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What is the hierarchal classification system of the living organisms?

binomial nomenclature

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What are the two parts included in binomial nomenclature?

Genus species

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What is the order of binomial nomenclature?

Domain, Kingdom, Phylum, Class, Order, Family, Genus, Species

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clade that consists of an ancestral species and all of its descendants

monophyletic group

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clade that consists of an ancestral species and some, but not all, of its descendants

paraphyletic group

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clade that consists of taxa with different ancestors

polyphyletic group

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a species or group of species that is closely related to the species being studied

outgroup

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various species being studied

ingroup

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What are the 3 domains in the recent 3 domain 6 kingdom system?

Domain Bacteria
Domain Archaea
Domain Eukarya

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What are the 6 kingdoms in the recent 3 domain 6 kingdom system, and which domains do they belong to?

Kingdom Eubacteria (Domain Bacteria)
Kingdom Archaebacteria (Domain Archaea)
Kingdom Protista (Domain Eukarya)
Kingdom Fungi (Domain Eukarya)
Kingdom Plantae (Domain Eukarya)
Kingdom Animalia (Domain Eukarya)

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Which domains do prokaryotes include?

Domain Bacteria

2. Domain Archaea

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What are the 3 typical shapes of prokaryotes?

spherical
rod
spiral

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What is the main difference between bacteria and archaea, in terms of their cellular structure?

Bacteria contains peptidoglycan, while archaea contains polysaccharides.

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a network of sugar polymers cross-linked by polypeptides

peptidoglycan

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result of gram stain test that results in a purple color, indicating a thick peptidoglycan layer (easier to kill with antibiotics b/c no outer layer)

gram-positive

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result of gram stain test that results in a red or pink color, indicating a thin peptidoglycan layer

gram-negative

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What is the main method of reproduction for prokaryotes?

binary fission

inactive, dormant, tough, non-reproductive structures that consist of DNA and cytoplasma

endospores

What is the function of an endospore?

to slow metabolic rate

What are the 5 major groups of Kingdom Eubacteria?

1. Proteobacteria 2. Chlamydias 3. Spirochetes 4. Cyanobacteria 5. Gram-positive bacteria

Group of Kingdom Eubacteria that is gram-negative and has lipopolysaccharides (has 5 subgroups)

proteobacteria

Group of Kingdom Eubacteria that are endosymbionts and include the intracellular parasites of animals and are gram-negative

chlamydias

Group of Kingdom Eubacteria that are helical heterotrophs, free-living or pathogenic parasites, and are hard to kill

spirochetes

Group of Kingdom Eubacteria that are photoautotrophs, chloroplast endosymbiosis origin hypothesis (chlorophyll a), abundant in aquatic environments, heterocysts (Nitrogen fixation), stromatolites

cyanobacteria

Group of Kingdom Eubacteria that are actinomycetes, contains mycoplasm, and includes bacillus anthracis

Gram-positive bacteria

soil-dwelling streptomyces that decompose soil

actinomycetes

the cause of anthrax

bacillus anthracis

the smallest known cells that lack cell walls (not typical, neither positive or negative bacteria)

mycoplasm

What are the 5 groups of proteobacteria?

1. alpha proteobacteria 2. beta proteobacteria 3. gamma proteobacteria 4. delta proteobacteria 5. epsilon proteobacteria

group of proteobacteria: - -- mitochondrial endosymbiosis origin hypothesis - -- Rhizobium (nitrogen fixation)

alpha proteobacteria

group of proteobacteria: - -- soil bacteria - -- nitrosomonas (nitrogen cycle)

beta proteobacteria

group of proteobacteria: - -- sufur bacteria - -- photoautotrophs - -- E. coli (intestine bacteria)

gamma proteobacteria

group of proteobacteria: - -- myxobacteria (fruiting-body forms) - -- myxospore (resistant to bad environment) - -- sulfate/sulfur reducing bacteria

delta proteobacteria

group of proteobacteria | --- most are pathogens

epsilon proteobacteria

calcareous mounds of prokaryotic algae and cyanobacteria (living fossils)

stromatolites

What are the 3 major biological and ecological roles of prokaryotes?

1. chemical recycling (decomposers) 2. ecological interactions (symbionts) --- mutualism (+/+) --- commensalism (+/0) --- parasitism (pathogens cause disease) (+/-) 3. autotrophs --- hydrothermal vents (have chemoautotropic bacteria) --- cyanobacteria (photoautotrophs)What

What are the 5 super groups of protists?

1. Excavata 2. Chromalveolata 3. Rhizaria 4. Archaeplastida 5. Unikonta

What 3 phyla are under the group excavata?

1. Diplomonads 2. Parabasalids 3. Euglenozoans

What 3 phyla are under the group Chromalveolata and the subgroup alveolates?

1. Dinoflagellata (Dinoflagellates) 2. Apicomplexa (Apicomplexans) 3. Ciliophora (Ciliates)

What 4 phyla are under the group Chromalveolata and the subgroup Stramenopiles?

1. Bacillariophyta (Diatoms) 2. Chrysophyta (Golden Algae) 3. Phaeophyta (Brown Algae) 4. Oomycota (Oomycetes) (water molds)

What 3 phyla are under the group Rhizaria?

1. Cercozoa (cercozoans) 2. Foraminifera (forams) 3. Radiolaria (radiolarians)

What 4 phyla are under the group Archaeplastida?

1. Rhodophyta (Red Algae) 2. Chlorophyta (Chlorophytes) (green algae) 3. Charophyta (Charophytes) (green algae) 4. Plantae (land plants)

What 4 phyla are under the group Unikonta and the subgroup Amoebozoans?

1. Acrasiomycota (cellular slime molds) 2. Myxomycota (plasmodial slime molds) 3. Gymnamoeba (free-living amoebas) 4. Entamoeba (parasitic amoebas)

What 4 phyla are under the group Unikonta and the subgroup Opisthokonts?

1. Nucleariids 2. Fungi 3. Choanoflagellates 4. Animals

combine photosynthesis and heterotrophic nutrition

mixotrophs

supergroup of protist: - -- synapomorphies - -- feeding groove - -- modified mitochondria

excavata

supergroup of protists: --- monophyletic --- endosymbiosis of red algae - secondary endosymbiosis

Chromalveolata

supergroup of protists: - -- monophyletic - -- amoebas (pseudopodia) - -- elaborate shell

Rhizaria

supergroup of protists: - -- monophyletic - -- chloroplasts with a double membrane

archaeplastida

2 groups of excavata: - -- no plastids - -- modified mitochondria (lack ETC) - -- often parasitic - -- anaerobic environment

diplomonads and parabasalids

subgroup of excavata: - -- mitosomes (modified mitochondria) - -- 2 equal sized nuclei and multiple flagella - -- parasites - -- Giardia intestinalis

diplomonads

subgroup of excavata: - -- hydrogenosomes (reduced mitochondria) - -- Trichomonas vaginalis

parabasalids

subgroup of excavata: - -- usually 2 flagella - -- crystalline rod in flagella - -- disc-shaped mitochondrial cristae

euglenozoans

subgroup of euglenozoans: - -- kinetoplast - -- trypanosomes

kinetoplastids

organelle consisting of extracellular DNA

kinetoplast

parasites; sleeping sickness; tsetse fly

trypanosomes

subgroup of euglenozoans: --- flagella emerge from the pocket at one end, eyespot --- mixotrophs --- paramylon --- nutrition (photosynthesis or phagocytosis)

euglenids

subgroup of chromalveolata: | --- alveoli (small membrane-bound sacs)

alveolata (alveolates)

subgroup of alveolata: - -- unicellular - -- photosynthetic - -- 2 flagella - -- cell wall (cellulose) - -- asexual reproduction - -- red tide - -- zooxanthellae

Dinoflagellata (dinoflagellates)

symbionts of jellyfish, corals, and mollusks - -- mutualistic relationship - -- photosynthetic for coral - -- coral bleaching - -- no flagella needed

zooxanthellae

``` subgroup of alveolata: --- unicellular --- nonmotile --- parasites of animals --- apex (has dense organelles, penetrate host cells) --- plasmodium (malaria) --- complex life cycle (2 hosts) --- alternation of generations ```

apicomplexa

subgroup of alveolata: --- unicellular --- cilia (function- movement) --- oral groove --- vacuoles (function- store water/food) --- 2 types of nuclei (micronucleus, macronucleous) --- conjugation (sexual process, exchange haploid micronuclei) --- paramecium

ciliophora (ciliates)

subgroup of chromalveolata: | --- 2 flagella: one hairy, one smooth

stramenopila (stramenopiles)

asexual form in mosquitos

sporozoite

intermediate form in human liver

merozoite

sexual form in human blood and mosquitos

gametocyte

subgroup of stramenopila: - -- unicellular - -- cell wall (glassy, frustule, silica) - -- chl a, c, carotenoid (no chl b) - -- no flagella - -- abundant phytoplankton - -- mostly asexual - -- diatomaceous sediments

bacillariophyta (diatoms)

the frustules of dead diatoms settle to the sea floor and accumulate there

diatomaceous sediments

subgroup of stramenopila: - -- unicellular, colonial - -- freshwater - -- chl a, c, carotenoid, xanthophyll - -- 2 flagella

chrysophyta (golden algae)

subgroup of stramenopila: - -- multicellular, marine - -- chl a, c, funcoxanthin - -- kelp - -- thallus (holdfast, stipe, blade, gas bladder) - -- kelp forests (keystone species) (sea otters) - -- alternation of generations

phaeophyta (brown algae)

alterations of multicellular haploid and diploid

alternation of generations

multicellular diploid organism that produces spores and is formed by meiosis

sporophyte

multicellular haploid organism that produces gametes by mitosis

gametophyte

subgroup of stramenopila: - -- fungi-like - -- have filaments (hyphae) - -- cell wall (cellulose) - -- decomposers or parasites

oomycota (oomycetes) (water molds)

subgroup of rhizaria: - -- unicellular - -- siliceous shells (tests) - -- actinopods (needle-like pseudopodia)

radiolaria (radiolarians)

subgroup of rhizaria: - -- unicellular - -- marine habitat - -- calcareous tests (calcium carbonate) - -- pseudopod (netlike) - -- calcareous sediment (limestone rocks) - -- relationship with zooxanthellae - -- symbiotic relationship - -- materials exchange

foraminifera (forams)

subgroup of rhizaria: - -- ameoboid or flagellated - -- most heterotrophs - -- Paulinella (autotroph) - -- chromatophore (evolved from cyanobacteria)

cercozoa (cercozoans)

subgroup of archaeplastida: - -- multicellular - -- chl a, phycoerythrins or phycobilins - -- live in deep water - -- sexual reproduction with AG - -- E.g. coralline algae - -- human uses (phycocolloid) - -- algar (gel) - -- carrageenan (ice cream stabilizer)

rhodophyta (red algae)

subgroup of archaeplastida: - -- most close to land plants - -- chl a and b - -- unicellular, multicellular - -- asexual - -- fragmentation - -- sexual (AG) - -- sporophyte - -- gametophyte (dominant) (heteromorphic) - -- E.g. volvox, ulva (sea lettuce) (isomorphic)

chlorophyta (green algae)

subgroup of unikonta: - -- synapomorphies - -- amoeba - -- lobe-shaped pseudopodia

amoebazoa

subgroup of amoebazoa: - -- unicellular - -- amorphous (no stable shape) - -- pseudopodia - -- asexual reproduction - -- variable living environments - -- predators (eat paramecium)

gymnamoeba (free-living amoebas)

subgroup of amoebazoa: --- parasites of verts/inverts --- histolytica (amoebic dysentery) (intestinal disease)

entamoeba (parasitic amoebas)

subgroup of amoebazoa: --- bright colored (yellow/orange) --- plasmodium (weblike multinucleate mass, feeding phase)

myxomycota (plasmodial slime molds)

subgroup of amoebazoa: | --- multicellular "slug" when lack of food

acrasiomycota (cellular slime molds)

subgroup of unikonta: - -- choanoflagellates - -- small size (10 um) - -- single flagellum surrounded by microvilli) - -- phylogenetically close to animals

opisthokonta (opisthokonts)

modified mitochondria

mitosomes

reduced mitochondria

hydrogenosomes

starch related energy storage molecule

paramylon

has dense organelles, penetrates host cells

apex (apical complex)

needle-like pseudopodia

actinopods

small membrane-bound sacs

alveoli

What disease does the parasite Plasmodium cause?

malaria

thallus breaks into pieces, each grows into a new alga (e.g. drift alga)

fragmentation

What disease is caused by Entamoeba histolytica?

amoebic dysentery (intestinal disease)

Which group does the paramecium belong to (which phylum)?

Ciliophora (ciliate)

a sexual process in which there is exchange of haploid micronuclei

conjugation

gold/yellow pigment

xanthophyll

brown/yellow pigment

funcoxanthin

red pigment

phycoerythrins or phycobilins

Is green algae monophyletic, paraphyletic, or polyphyletic?

monophyletic

Which group is commonly agreed to be close to the animal kingdom?

opisthokonta

What are the ecological roles of protists?

1. symbiotic parasites 2. parasitic parasites 3. photosynthetic protists

- -- multicellular - -- cell wall (cellulose) - -- photosynthetic - -- chloroplasts (chl a and b, carotenoids) - -- Alternation of Generations - -- dominant in nearly all terrestrial communities - -- major producers - -- two groups 1. nonvascular 2. vascular

general characteristics of plants

- -- alternation of generations - -- multicellular dependent embryos - -- placental transfer cell - -- embryophytes - -- sporangia - -- sporopollenin-covered spores - -- multicellular gametangia - -- apical meristem

derived traits of plants

cluster of embryonic cells at the tip of shoots and roots

apical meristem

What is the closest relative of the kingdom Plantae?

green algae (charophytes)

What 7 features and data support the close relationship between the Kingdom Plantae and green algae (Charophytes)?

1. chloroplasts (chl a and b) 2. cellulose and starch 3. cell plate 4. molecular data (rRNA gene) 5. proteins 6. flagellated sperm 7. phragmoplast

What are the 5 adaptations for plants to be able to live on land?

1. cell wall 2. sporopollenin 3. waxy cuticle 4. mycorrhizae 5. vascular tissue

cellulose plant fiber

cell wall

protects spores

sporopollenin

covering of the epidermis of a plant

waxy cuticle

mutualistic relationship between fungi and roots

mycorrhizae

water transport and support

vascular tissue

organs where sporophytes produce spores

sporangia

organs where gametophytes produce gametes

gametangia

life cycles alternate between 2 generations, haploid gametophyte and diploid sporophyte

alternation of generations

Which 3 phyla are classified under bryophytes (non-vascular plants)?

1. Hepatophyta (liverworts) 2. Anthocerophyta (hornworts) 3. Bryophyta (mosses)

- -- no vascular tissue - -- gametophyte dominant over sporophytes - -- no true leaves, stems, or roots (rhizoids) - -- small, moist places

general characteristics of bryophytes

subgroup of bryophytes: - -- gametophytes (larger, long-lived) - -- thalloid (flattened shaped gametophytes) - -- rhizoids (one-celled) - -- reproduction - -- sexual (AG) - -- asexual (gemmae)

hepatophyta (liverworts)

subgroup of bryophytes: - -- sporophyte (long) - -- thalloid gametophytes - -- single chloroplast

anthocerophyta (hornworts)

flattened shaped gametophytes

thalloid

``` subgroup of bryophytes: --- gametophytes (leaves - spirally arranged, thin) --- sporophytes (elongated) --- seta (stalk) --- capsule (sporangium) --- peristome (tooth-like capsule mouth) (responds to moisture) --- rhizoids (filaments of cells) ```

bryophyta (mosses)

- -- common in moist conditions - -- help retain nitrogen in soil - -- some survive in extreme environments - -- sphagnum - -- peatland - -- fuel source - -- archaeological site

ecological importance of mosses (bryophyta)

peat mosses

sphagnum

What are the differences between xylem and phloem?

Xylem contains dead cells (tracheids), while phloem contains living cells. Xylem contains lignin (thick walls stiffened), while phloem does not. Xylem only transports water and minerals upward, while phloem transports food in all directions.

- -- vascular tissue - -- xylem - -- phloem - -- sporophytes > gametophytes - -- true leaves, stems, and roots - -- microphylls vs. megaphylls - -- sporophylls - -- seeds (highly resistant) - -- seedless - -- seed-forming

general characteristics of vascular plants

have needle-like leaves

microphylls

have branching leaves

megaphylls

bears sporangia (highly specialized) (brown dots on back of leaf)

sporophylls

subgroup of vascular plants: - -- small, resemble mosses - -- microphylls - -- homosporous and heterosporous - -- e.g. quillworts, club mosses, spike mosses

lycophyta (club mosses)

type of pterophyta: - -- megaphylls (fronds) - -- homosporous - -- sori - -- rhizome

ferns (pterophyta)

clusters of sporangia on sporophylls

sori

horizontal stems (cannot absorb)

rhizome

type of pterophyta: - -- lack leaves and true roots - -- rhizomes - -- homosporous

whisk ferns (psilophyta)

type of pterophyta: - -- bushy leaves - -- homosporous - -- rhizomes - -- strobili

horsetails (sphenophyta or arthophyta)

What are the 4 groups under vascular plants?

1. lycophyta (club mosses) 2. pterophyta (ferns) 3. psilophyta (whisk ferns) 4. sphenophyta/arthrophyta (horsetails)

gametangia containing the egg

archegonia

gametangia containing the sperm

antheridia

What are tracheids?

dead cells

--- seeds --- embryo --- food supply (female gametophyte tissue - haploid) --- seed coat (integument) --- reduced gametophytes --- heterospory --- megaspore --- microspore --- ovules --- megasporangium --- megaspore --- integuments --- pollen --- microspores --- pollen grains --- pollen wall: sporopollenin/male gametophyte: two sperm cells --- pollination --- monophyletic

common features of seed plants

fertilized egg (developed from megaspore)

embryo

makes megagametophyte, which makes archegonia with eggs

megaspore

makes microgametophyte, which makes antheridia, producing sperm

microspore

Which 4 phyla are under gymnosperms?

1. Cycadophyta (cycads) 2. Ginkgophyta (ginkgos) 3. Gnetophyta (gnetophytes) 4. Coniferophyta (conifers)

subgroup of gymnosperms: - -- monophyletic - -- slow-growing - -- tall - -- large cones and palm-like leaves - -- unusual, large sperm - -- dioecious

Cycadophyta (cycads)

subgroup of gymnosperms: - -- single living species - -- dioecious - -- cultivation in china and japan - -- no significant natural distribution - -- deciduous - -- resistant to insects, disease, air pollution - -- female forms seed

Ginkgophyta (ginkgos)

What is the single living species in the phylum Ginkgophyta (ginkgos)?

Ginkgo bilboa

subgroup of gymnosperms: - -- Gnetum (tropics) - -- Welwitschia (Desserts - dry) - -- Ephedra (arid, worldwide) - -- molecular data (pulls 3 together)

Gnetophyta (gnetophytes)

``` subgroup of gymnosperms: --- monophyletic --- largest gymnosperm group --- worldwide, but common in cold/dry areas --- evergreen --- adaptations --- microphyll (vascular) (needle-like leaves) --- thick cuticle --- importance --- conifer forest (monicerous) --- sequoia (redwood) --- Sequoiadendron gigantea (world's tallest tree) --- bristlecone pine --- Methuselah - pinus longaeva (world's oldest tree ```

Coniferophyta (conifers)

What adaptations do fruits develop to enhance seed dispersal?

barbs, seeds with berries, ect.

What are the key features of the angiosperm life cycle?

most are cross-pollination; double fertilization

occurs when the pollen tube discharges 2 sperm into each ovule --- one sperm fertilizes the egg, forming a zygote --- the other fertilizes the central cell, forming the endosperm, for food supply

double fertilization

What are the 3 basal groups included with angiosperms?

1. magnoliids 2. monocots 3. eudicots

group of angiosperm: - -- Amborella trichopoda - -- lacks vessels - -- Water Lily (lotus) - -- Star Anise (fruit)

basal

basal group of angiosperm: --- trimerous flowers --- branching-veined leaves --- e.g. magnolia, laurel, cinnamon, avocado --- economic uses (food, drugs, timber, ornamental trees)

magnoliids

basal group of angiosperm: - -- embryos: one cotyledon - -- leaves: parallel veins - -- stem: scattered vascular tissue - -- root: no main root - -- pollen: one pore - -- flower: in multiples of 3 - -- herbs - -- e.g. grasses, lillies, orchids, onions

monocots

basal group of angiosperm: - -- embryos: 2 cotyledons - -- leaves: netlike - -- stem: ring-shaped vascular tissues - -- root: taproot - -- pollen: 3 pores - -- flower: in multiples of 4 or 5 - -- woods - -- e.g. all other plants

eudicots

Name the part of the flower: 1. enclose the flower 2. brightly colored, attract pollinators 3. produce pollen (male) 4. produce ovules (female)

1. sepals 2. petals 3. stamens 4. carpels

What is the function of the outgroup?

An out group is selected so that its members are closely related to the group of species being studied, but not as closely related as any study group members are to each other

How are outgroups selected?

A suitable out group can be determined based on evidence from morphology, paleontology, embryonic development, and gene sequences

a character that originated in an ancestor of the taxon

shared ancestral character

an evolutionary novelty unique to a clade

shared derived character

a staining method that distinguishes between two different kinds of bacterial cell walls; may be used to help determine medical response to an infection

gram stain

a small, circular, double-stranded DNA molecule that carries accessory genes separate from those of a bacterial chromosome; found in some eukaryotes, such as yeast

plasmid

an organism that lives in environmental conditions so extreme that few other species can survive there

extremophiles

an organism that lives in a highly saline environment, such as the Great Salt Lake or the Dead Sea

halophile

an organism that thrives in hot environments (often 60-80 degrees celcius or hotter)

thermophile

an organism that produces methane as a waste product of the way it obtains energy

methangen

an organism that harnesses light energy to drive the synthesis of organic compounds from carbon dioxide

photoautotroph

an organism that obtains organic food molecules by eating other organisms or substances derived from them

heterotroph

an organism that obtains organic food molecules without eating other organisms or substances derived from other organisms; uses energy from sun or oxidation of inorganic substances to make organic molecules from inorganic ones

autotroph

located inside each flagella in euglenozoans

crystalline rod

causes malaria, lives mainly inside cells (hidden from host's immune system), continually changes surface proteins

plasmodium

siliceous shells

tests

multinucleate filaments found in oomcyetes (water molds)

hyphae

site of photosynthesis in Paulinella (cercozoan); surrounded by a membrane with peptidoglycan layer; derived from cyanobacteria

chromatophore

an algal body that is plantlike; lacks true stems, roots, and leaves

thallus

anchors alga

holdfast

supports blades

stipe

leaflike; provide most of alga's photosynthetic surface

blades

gas-filled, bubble-shaped floats that help keep the blades up near the surface of the water

gas-bladder

means of food and movement for amoebas; extensions that may bulge from almost anywhere on the surface

pseudopodia

weblike multinucleate mass in feeding phase of myxomycota

plasmodium

finger-like projections of the epithelial cells in the lumen of the small intestine that increase its surface area

microvilli

episodes of explosive population growth, or blooms, in dinoflagellates

red tide

What causes the red tide?

The blooms make coastal waters appear brownish red or pink because of the presence of caratenoids, the most common pigment in dinoflagellate plastids

responsible for green pigment in green algae

chlorophyll b

present in all plants, algae, and cyanobacteria (pigment)

chlorophyll a

pigment present in chromista and dinoflagellates

chlorophyll c

a haploid cell produced in the sporophyte by meiosis

spore

a haploid reproductive cell, such as the egg or sperm

gamete

alternating generations in plants and certain algae in which the sporophytes and gametophytes look alike, although they differ in chromosome number

isomorphic

referring to a condition in the life cycle of plants and certain algae in which the sporophyte and gametophyte generations differ in morphology

heteromorphic

Paulinella conducts photosynthesis in a unique structure called a chromatophore. Chromatophores are surrounded by a membrane with a peptidoglycan layer suggesting that they are derived from a bacteria. DNA evidence indicates that chromatophores are derived from a different cyanobacterium than that from which other plastids are derived

endosymbiosis hypothesis

a process in which a unicellular organism (the host) engulfs another cell, which lives within the host cell and ultimately becomes an organelle in the host cell

endosymbiosis

a process in eukaryotic evolution in which a heterotrophic eukaryotic cell engulfed a photosynthetic eukaryotic cell, which survived in a symbiotic relationship inside the heterotrophic cell

secondary endosymbiosis

Why can red algae live in deeper water, compared to brown or green algae?

Their accessory pigments, including phycoerythrin, allow them to absorb blue and green light, which penetrate relatively far into the water

long, tubular single cells (in liverworts and hornworts) or filaments of cells (in mosses)

rhizoid

fuel source, archaeological site

peatland

stiffens thick walls of xylem

lignin

megaphylls

fronds

referring to plant species that has a single kind of spore, which typically develops into a bisexual gametophyte

homosporous

two kinds of spores, microspores (develop into male gametophytes) and megaspores (develop into female gametophytes)

heterosporous

cluster of sporophylls known commonly as a cone, found in most gymnosperms and some seedless vascular plants

strobilus

What are the evolutionary advantages of seeds vs. spores?

long life, seed coat

edible part of fruit

pericarp

layer of sporophyte tissue that contributes to the structure of an ovule of a seed

integument

in seed plants, a structure consisting of the male gametophyte enclosed within pollen wall

pollen grain

a plant that nourishes itself but browns on the surface of another plant for support, usually on the branches or trunks of trees

epiphyte

nutrient-rich tissue formed by union of sperm with 2 polar nuclei during double fertilization and provides nourishment to developing embryo

endosperm

a seed leaf of an angiosperm embryo; some species have one, some have 2

cotyledon