Test 1

Question 1

Teleological Theory

Answer 1

Suggests that each thing in the world has some purpose, and what is right is what leads to that ultimate purpose. Therefore, the proper purpose of a thing must be defined before the proper action leading to its fulfillment can be determined.

Question 2

Utilitarianism

Answer 2

The maximization of human well-being and the absence of pain (opposite of happiness) is the desired moral outcome.

Question 3

Consequentialism

Answer 3

The rightness of an action is determined by its consequences.

Question 4

Hedonism

Answer 4

Utility is the pursuit of well-being and the absence of pain or harm.

Question 5

Maximalism

Answer 5

The focus is on the greatest amount of well-being for the greatest number of people.

Question 6

Univeralism

Answer 6

Everyone’s happiness must be considered and one’s own interest cannot count for more than those of others.

Question 7

Shortcomings of Utilitarian Theory

Answer 7

• The theory allows for one to harm a minority group or an individual for the well-being of another.
• There’s an issue of measuring what makes an individual happy and fulfilled.

Question 8

Deontological Theory

Answer 8

Argues that the right action in any situation stems from the obligation to behave morally in every circumstance, and that the intention or principles behind actions must be morally pure. The act must be intrinsically moral to be right.

Question 9

Kantian Ethics

Answer 9

Maxims should be judged as moral or not, and a moral maxim is good for its own sake, applies universally and is absolutely true in every situation.

Question 10

The Categorical Imperative

Answer 10

• One must obey in all moral questions, regardless of any other variable.
• Universalizability is crucial as it requires the maxim to be considered in all situations.

Question 11

Challenges to Kantian Ethics

Answer 11

• It’s extremely inflexible as it’s absolute and universal in language and intent. It doesn’t allow for context, outcome, consequence, emotion or any other variable in decision making.
• There is a problem in complex ethical dilemmas, as there could be competing duties.

Question 12

Discourse Ethics - Habermas

Answer 12

Validity of a moral norm cannot be justified in the mind of an isolated individual reflecting on the world. Thus it must be justified through processes of communication, argumentation or discourse between individuals

Question 13

Social Contract Theory

Answer 13

Individuals in a society live together to achieve mutual benefit and a quality of life that would not be achievable without cooperation. Individuals consent to the conditions and terms of social order, to the basic laws and sacrifice individual freedoms in exchange for the functioning of the society.

Question 14

Rawl’s Theory

Answer 14

Asserts that the social contract ought to ensure the primacy of justice in all political, social, and economic agreements. The principles of justice are more important than the details and rules for setting up such institutions.

Question 15

First Principle

Answer 15

Requires that each person has maximum basic liberties to the extent that they do not conflict with the liberties of others.

Question 16

Second Principle

Answer 16

Inequalities are permitted in social and economic sphere but must be justified in the following ways.
o Difference Principle: All individuals must be better off despite the inequalities than they would be if all things were equal.
o The second part argues for equality of opportunity, not only for offices and positions, but also for acquiring necessary skills to be qualified.

Question 17

Challenges to Social Contract Approach

Answer 17

• In the original position, rational individuals would take a greater risk in the hopes that they would end up in the advantaged position thereby the requirements of justice would be less demanding.
• There are questions about what an individual is to do when others do not fulfill the requirements of social contract, when there is corruption or when others act immorally.

Question 18

Virtue Ethics

Answer 18

Ancient approach – based on certain “idea virtues” that provide for full development of our humanity and highest potential of character. These virtues included: honesty, courage, compassion, generosity, love etc.

Question 19

Confucianism

Answer 19

• The principle of reciprocity with a greater emphasis on hierarchy, guanxi (networks), social traditions and harmony.
• Moral self-cultivation, development of human virtues with the goal of harmony of the whole nature and is compatible with capitalism.

Question 20

Ethics of Care

Answer 20

• Feminist Perspective
• People are understood to have varying degrees of dependence and interdependence on one another. It assumes that people have independent interests and interactions.
• Those who are vulnerable to one’s choices and their outcomes deserve extra consideration to be measure according to their vulnerability to one’s choices.

Question 21

Straw Man Fallacy

Answer 21

An argument in which the arguer criticizes a weakened or distorted version of his or her opponent’s point of view rather than dealing directly with that point of view.

Question 22

Ad Hominem Fallacy

Answer 22

An argument that focuses on criticizing a person, rather than focusing on the strength of that person’s reasoning.

Question 23

Argument from Tradition

Answer 23

An argument that argues that we should believe or do something simply because some group we belong to has believed or don that thing for a long time.

Question 24

Argument from Popularity

Answer 24

An argument that argues we should believe or do something simply because believing it or doing it is popular.

Question 25

False Dilemma

Answer 25

Any argument that tries to convince you that you only have two options, and must choose one, when that is not really the case.

Question 26

The Framing Effect

Answer 26

The way we describe, or frame, a question has an enormous and unjustifiable effect on how we answer that question.

Question 27

Confirmation Bias

Answer 27

The natural tendency we all have to seek out and remember information that confirms our own prior points of view, and to avoid or forget information that might change our minds.

Question 28

False Consensus Effect

Answer 28

The tendency people have to overestimate the extent to which others agree with their points of view.

Question 29

Ingroup Bias

Answer 29

The tendency people have to think well of, to trust, and to give preferential treatment to, members of their own group. People have the natural tendency to cluster into groups and to treat each other differently on that basis.

Question 30

Moral Luck

Answer 30

The tendency to attribute moral credit and blame to individuals as a result of events that are not, strictly speaking, within their control.

Question 31

Positivist Theory

Answer 31

Law is nothing more than expression of the will of the sovereign. There’s a clear distinction between what is and what ought to be; and that law should be looked at as separate from morality.

Question 32

Natural Law Theory

Answer 32

Law and morality cannot be separated, law must be about fundamental and immutable moral principles. Natural law theorists saw law as facilitating the fulfillment of man’s natural purposes.

Question 33

Functions of Law

Answer 33

• To regulate the behaviour of societal actors.
• To address societal questions.
• Law is only effective if it can influence behaviour and is enforceable.

Question 34

Criminal Law

Answer 34

The most moral of laws that relate to fundamental questions of right and wrong behaviour.

Question 35

Civil Law

Answer 35

Laws that govern the relationship between private actors in society. It includes matters such as contracts, property laws, personal injury, product liability, and intellectual property.

Question 36

Regulatory Law

Answer 36

A vague term for laws that stand at the border of criminal law and civil law.

Question 37

Constitutional Law

Answer 37

Are laws created by countries to “govern their governors.” It’s generally the supreme law and outlines the system of government and the civil rights of all Canadian citizens.

Question 38

Types of Stakes

Answer 38

• Financial
• Legal
• Rights-Based
• Moral
• Interest-Based

Question 39

Financial

Answer 39

The stakeholder stands to make money or lose money as a result of the decision on the issue.

Question 40

Legal

Answer 40

The stakeholder can point to a specific law or legal right that would entitle them to a specific outcome.

Question 41

Rights-Based

Answer 41

The stakeholder assert that a human right, such as health, safety or anti-discrimination, is at risk in this decision.

Question 42

Moral

Answer 42

A conviction or values-based principle a stakeholder would not want to see violated. Ex: PETA and McDonalds.

Question 43

Interest-Based

Answer 43

A stakeholder holder holds an interest-based stake where they are more likely to be pleased with the decision-maker if a certain outcome is reached. These are generally customers.

Question 44

How Do You Analyze Competing Stakes?

Answer 44

Legitimacy, Power, Urgency

Question 45

Legitimacy

Answer 45

An objectively clear entitlement to a desired outcome, either the extent of the risk the stakeholder is exposed to, or the strength of commitment to the stake.

Question 46

Power

Answer 46

The relative influence of the stakeholder over the decision-maker.

Question 47

Urgency

Answer 47

Considers how soon this stakeholder needs or wants its stakes to be met.

Question 48

Problems with Stakeholder Management

Answer 48

• The structure gives too much influence to the “powerful stakeholder” who might lack the bona fides of other, less powerful, stakeholders.
• When stakeholder management is left to a compliance or public affairs department separate from line operations, it becomes cumbersome and inefficient.

Question 49

Clarkson Principle

Answer 49

• Managers should acknowledge and monitor legitimate stakeholders.
• Listen to, and communicate with stakeholders
• Adopt processes that take stakeholders concerns into account.
• Try to achieve a fair distribution of benefits among stakeholders.

Question 50

4 Pillars of Good Citizenship

Answer 50

Does the corporation have legal, economic, ethical or philanthropic responsibility to a given stakeholder, or in this situation?

Question 51

Shareholder Theory

Answer 51

The sole responsibility of business is to increase profits. It is based on the premise that management are hired as the agent of the shareholder to run the company for their benefit, thus are legally and morally obligated to serve their interests.

Question 52

Nexus of Contract

Answer 52

States that corporations are simply collections of contracts between different parties and that the company structure is founded on the basis of a nexus of contracts which govern the rights and obligations of the parties’ contractual relations under the company. Furthermore, it implies that those that do not have a contractual relationship to the corporations have no legitimate claims in the corporation’s activities.

Question 53

Corporate Social Responsibility and Sustainability Theory

Answer 53

Companies have much broader obligations toward the social problems or externalities they create. There is a shift of focus from internal stakeholders towards issues that are the primary concerns for the government and civil society as stakeholders in corporate operations.

Question 54

Stakeholder Economy

Answer 54

• The direct one-on-one relationship of corporation to stakeholder is extended into larger networks of relationships that encompass the globe.
• Traditional stakeholder theorists reject this theory because it transforms a theory of organizational strategy and ethics into a theory of political economy, thereby making it less viable.