Test 1 Flashcards by Isabel staats

Why study cognitive psychology?

Laypeople’s intuitions about cognition are frequently __.
Cognitive Psychology is a __.
Cognitive Psychology has __ and __ implications.
Cognition is not __. (__ don’t always match how well we actually remember and process.)

Incorrect

Science

Practical and policy

Intuitive

Intentions

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What do Cognitive psychologists do?

__ research
__ research and __. Which entails anything humans __ with.

Basic

Applied

Consultancy

Interact

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Most graduates do not get jobs in their __ (__% 1st job directly related to major, __% to degree.)

Major

27%

62.1%

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What is Cognitive Psychology?

1) a __ of mental processes (attention, learning, memory forms, etc.)

2) a __ _ __ about how to study mental processes.
- a reaction to __’s denial of mental process.

Topic

Point of view

Behaviorism’s

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__ approach became increasingly more popular than behavioral approach.

Cognitive

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Wilhelm Wundt:background

born in __ and had an __ childhood.
his uncle got him into university and he transferred to work with __ Wilhelm __ Bunsen.
Wundt was his own research subject on effects of restricted __ intake on __ composition.

1832

Unhappy

Robert, von

Salt, urine

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Wilhelm Wundt background continued:

Wundt establishes the 1st __ lab in __.
the lab does lots of __ and __ work.

Psychology, 1879

Sensation and perception

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Structuralism: goal was to determine the __ or __ of __ experience.
-analogous to __’s search for the “__ __” of compounds.

-Physicists interested in __, psychologists in __ of __.

Elements or structure

Conscious

Chemistry’s

Building blocks

Wavelengths

Perception of wavelengths

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Wundt’s Methodology:
Introspection
-not armchair speculation, more accurately “___ __-observation.”

-introspection included: self-__(not __), __ times, and word__.

experimental self-observation

- self-reports (not good), reaction times, and word association.

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Criticism’s of Introspection:

__ thought controversy. (Can you think without __?)
different labs found different __.
Oswald __: thinking doesn’t require __.
Wundt and __: yes, it does. You’re not __ the right way.

Imageless

Imagery

Results

Kulpe

Imagery

Titchener

Introspecting

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Imageless thought example

-what # do you think when you see 5 and 2? __ or __.

Can’t prove either response wrong.

52 or 7

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Introspection is not a __ method to analyze the contents of the mind.

subjective reports can’t be __.
if Psychology is going to be a science, then it must have a __ method and __ data.

Valid

Verified

Verifiable, objective

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Behaviorism:

John __:
said psychologists should only study __ events such as environmental __ and __.

-Theoretical goal is __ and __ of behavior.

Stimulus-Response (S-R): it should be possible to predict __ because each stimulus produces __ __. (Like Pavlov’s)
believed no __ processes play a role in a behavioral chain.

Watson

Observable

Stimuli and behavior

Predication and control

Behavior

1 response

Mental

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Behaviorism’s Contributions and Criticism:

Pros:
-emphasis on \_\_ (observable data) 
-experimental \_\_.
-advances in \_\_ (and \_\_) learning 
Cons:
-ignores \_\_ and \_\_ influences. (2 examples) 
-stimulus-response(S-R) is overly \_\_.
-higher level \_\_ (reasoning and language) received less attention.

Objective

Rigor

Animal (and human)

Cognitive and biological (motivation, thought)

Simplistic

Cognition

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Early heroes of the cognitive revolution:
Cognitive psych existed before it had a __.
-William __.
*father of __ psychology and a famous __.
-studied __ and __ memory (precursor to short and long term memory) and __.
-described ____ experiences (not introspection into component parts)
-functionalism: mental phenomenon have a __. Contrast to structuralism’s __ conceptions of human experience(Wundt and titchener).

Name

James

American, philosopher

Primary, secondary

Attention

Phenomenological

Purpose

Elemental

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Herman __.

used scientific techniques to study __ and __.
used __ syllables (not tainted by length, familiarity, or meaning.)
the __ variable: __ of nonsense syllables recalled.
lots of __ variables. (__ experimental design).

Ebbinghaus

Memory and forgetting

Nonsense

Dependent, number

Independent

Good

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Early Cognitivists:
Franciscus (F.C) __.

studied mental __ (how much time different mental processes took)
__ time as ___ dependent variable.

-used __ reaction time (press button when you see light) vs __ reaction time (press the button when you see the RED light).
They subtracted the 1st time from the 2nd time in order to see how long it takes people to __ (__ ms).

Danders

Chronometry

Reaction

Objective

Simple, choice

Discriminate (150ms)

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Early Cognitivists:

Gestalt Psychology

the __ is other than the sum of parts.
more arguments against basic_-_ theories.
research on __ solving and __ thinking (e.g insight).
__ protocalls “talk Aloud”

Whole

S-R

Problem, creative

Verbal

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E.C __ (behaviorist)
-__ learning: learning can occur, even without rewards.

Study: rats did maze best with better __. Group 1 got food rewards __. Group 2 __ received good reward. Group 3 didn’t receive a food reward until the __th day. Group 3 became very __ at the maze after receiving the food reward. (They knew it, just needed reward.)

Tolman

Latent

Rewards

Daily

Never

11th

Good

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E.C Tolman: Cognitive maps

behaviorism predicts path 2 but rats use path 3 for block b (middle blocked).
the cognitive map is a type of __ __.
S-O-R Psychology: __-__ -__
use behavior to infer __ __.

Mental representation

Stimulus-organism-response

Mental state

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Example of a behavioral chain:

squirrel doing __ __.
animals can be trained (shaped) to do complex __ __.

Obstacle course

Behavioral sequences

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Behaviorists simplistic view on speech production:
-a sentence is a __ of __.

sentences are learned __ of __. (A __ elicits the 1st word, which serves as the __ for the 2nd word and so on.)
many behaviorists believed that __ and __ conditioning acquisit language.

Sequence, words

Chains, responses

Stimulus, stimulus

Classical, operant

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Sentences consist of __.
-sentences are not formed by simply stringing __ together.

-rather, sentences have a __ design. Words are grouped into successively larger __ units called __.

Phrases

Words

Hierarchical

Structural

Phrases

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Productivity of Language:
An __ number of sentences can be generated and understood with __ knowledge and resources.

Ex: colorless green ideas sleep furiously. (Brain tries to understand).

Poverty of the input: children’s sentence production abilities are too __ to be explained by only what they’ve __.

Infinite

Finite

Advanced

Heard

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Linguistics contributions: Human language: - is a sophisticated, __ system that involves __ and __ of hierarchical phrase structures. -is a __-governed system. -is infinitely __. -is __ and __ (rules for 1 skill (language) are located in a specific module than other skills (vision))

Hierarchical Storage Manipulation Rule Creative Innate and modular

Contributions of computer science: - information processing approach: __ analogy to explain how the mind works. - __ , __ processes➡️ __. - programs specify “__ states” between input and output. - programs are __ (separate programs have different functions) - artificial intelligence: human thinking is a kind of symbol __; machines can be __. (Ex: chess, logic, algebra).

Computer Input, internal processes➡️output Internal Modular Manipulation Intelligent

More computer science contributions: - __ distributed processing (PDP)/___ism ( __ at a time). - __ processing: everything worked on at __. - Use analogy of the __ system in which neurons are connected to each other, knowledge is __ through connections of nodes, excitatory/inhibitory links.

Parallel Connectionism One Parallel Once Nervous Distributed

Bayesian models of cognitive processes: -bayesian= __ -based on __ reasoning (if..then) and __. Ex: inferring __ relationships and categories.

Statistical Conditional Probabilities Causal

Ulric __: - cognitive psychologist in __. - use __ to make inferences about __ states and __. - computer metaphor and information processing approach

Neisser 1967 Behavior Mental Processes

Psychology: A modern definition -psychology is the science of __ and __ processes. Behavior: anything an __ __. Mental processes: __, __ experiences and states that we infer from __.

Behavior Mental Organism does Internal, subjective Behavior

Themes with arrival of new cognitive psychology: 1) cognitive processes are __ based. - cognition is __ and __ (__ processing). -__ and __ play a crucial role in memory and cognition. Bottom up processing: __ data is processed (ex: __ rehearsal). Top down processing: prior __ influences how we process __ information. (Ex: scripts)

Knowledge Constructive, interpretative Active Experience and knowledge Sensory, rote Knowledge, process

Themes with arrival of new cognitive psychology continued: 2) inferring __ mechanisms. - inference to the best __ -infer the __ cause of an __ event. - __ used in many sciences. - uses __ time, __, and __ evidence.

Hidden Explanation Hidden Observed Successfully Reaction, mistakes, neurophysiological

Themes with arrival of new cognitive psychology continued: 3) The creative tension between __ and scientific __. - ___: stay close to the __. (AKA __) - scientific __: explain phenomena in terms of deeper __, even if they can’t be directly __.

Empiricism Realism Empiricism, observations, behaviorism Scientific realism, Structure, observed

What is cognitive science? - cognitive science is the __ study of the __\__. Cognitive mental processes: p__, r__, l__ understanding, l__, t__. -frequently uses a __ (math) approach.

Interdisciplinary Mind/brain Perceiving, remembering, language understanding, learning, and thinking. Computational

6 fields make up the __ aspect of cognitive science. -they have overlapping areas of __, complimentary __, and converging __. The fields are: __, __, __, __, __, __.

Interdisciplinary Investigation, methods, evidence Psychology, philosophy, linguistics, neuroscience, anthropology, and AI (computer science)

Breakdown of 6 fields. Psych: studies human/animal __ and __ processes -__ method. Examples: cognition, psycholinguistics, neuropsych, developmental psych, evolutionary psych.

Behavior and mental processes Experimental

Breakdown of 6 fields. Philosophy: -asks __ questions. Examples: -what does it mean to be conscious, rational, intentional. -when can you say you know something. What is truth, belief, and justification. -reasoning (logic) Methods: __ and __ analysis, __ experiments.

Big Logical and conceptual analysis Thought

Breakdown of 6 fields. Neuroscience: -studies ___ system. - grounded in ___ and __. - __ methods.

Nervous Biology and biochemistry Diverse

Breakdown of 6 fields. ``` Computer Science (AI): -__ and __ approach to computation. ``` Computation: __ or __ that underlie the acquisition, representation, processing, storage, communication of, and access to __. Methods: computer __, analysis of __, and r___.

Scientific and practical Process or algorithms Information Simulation, algorithms, robotics

Breakdown of 6 fields. Linguistics (and music): -studies the structures of human __, the nature of __ __, p__, and p__. Methods: statistical __, __-linguistic__.

Languages Language acquisition Perception Production Analysis Cross-linguistic comparison

Cognitive neuroscience: Neuroscience and psych -use of evidence from __ research to understand __ functioning. Doctrine of Localization: -specific __ areas control specific parts of the __. Double dissociation: -a complementary pattern involving 2 tasks in 2 patients with lesions in 2 different brain areas. Tasks a and b are __ and neurologically __.

Neurological Cognitive Brain, body Modular, distinct

Functional MRI: Insight into brain __ and __ in __ time. (Seconds) - blood __ level dependent. - __’s subtractive method. - __ challenges. - revolutionizes __ neuroscience.

Structure Function Real Oxygen Donder’s Methodological Cognitive

Akiro Haraguchi: memorized __ digits of pi Autauro Toscanini: memorized __ scores

100,000 Musical

Defining memory: - memory is not one single __, it has several __. - records our __ and __-__ for moment to moment __. - memory does not have one single, c__, s__, or p__.

Thing Functions Experiences Work-space thoughts Capacity, structure, or process

Definition of memory span: - the __ of items (letters, digits, etc..) you can __ in __. - measure of __/__-__ memory. - adult average= __.

Number Remember Order Working/ short-term 7

Factors that impact memory span: - related items vs __ items. - concrete items vs __. - rhythmic presentation vs _ or __ presentation. - faster presentation vs __ presentation. - auditory presentation vs __ presentation. - short words vs __ words. - no distractions vs __. Which side is long memory span, which is shorter?

Unrelated Abstract No or arrhythmic Slower Visual Long Distractions Left side is longer, right side shorter

Terms from early computer processing influenced psych lingo: Encoding: transformation of __ input that allows it to be entered into __. Storage: the operation of __ info. Retrieval: the process by which __ info is __ from memory.

Sensory, memory Holding Stored, extracted

Case Study S.F: -digit span of _ but after 230+ hours of practice, S.F could reliably recall __ length sequences in order. S.F. used a combination of __ and __ strategies. -Chunking (__ strategy): chunking of groups of digits into __ units. -Hierarchical Organization (__ strategy): organize the chunks into__. Use the __ for retrieval cues. Hierarchical organization is an example of __ __ __ processing.

8, 80 Encoding Retrieval Encoding Meaningful Retrieval Groups Hierarchy Active top down processing

Evidence for hierarchical organization: - verbal protocalls: people __-__ (subjective) hierarchical retrieval of chunks. - behavioral evidence: people’s speech patterns during recall are normal __ a chunk, but slower __ chunks. (Objective)

- self-report | - within, between

Information processing model: Mind is like a __-it takes in information, changes it and creates an __.

Computer Output

Multi store model: - ex of __ __. - _ memory stores with distinct: __, __, and __(format). __ processes: rehearsal, elaboration, development of __ cues -boxes and __.

Information processing 3 Capacity, duration, and code Control Retrieval Arrows

Sensory store: Information is held in a modality-specific __ until it is attended to or forgotten. iconic: Capacity: all __ input (for a short time) Duration: _._-_._ seconds. Code (format): __ Echoic: Capacity: all __ input (for a short time, length of a __.) Duration: _-_ seconds. Code (format): __ Haptic: Capacity: _ _ _ Duration: _ seconds. Code (format): __.

Buffer Sensory -0.3-1.0 seconds Vision Sensory Sentence 2-4 seconds Auditory TBD 2 seconds Tactile

Evidence for Iconic Memory: -__’s partial report paradigm and results. Consisted of: fixation, letter array, blank field delay(length of time varied), cue tone, and report. -longer delay time= __ right. Inferred that the __ memory sensory store only lasts _._ to _._ seconds.

Sperling’s Less Iconic 0.3 -1.0 seconds

Iconic memory and the brain: Retina: cells not __ long enough. Primary Visual Cortex: single V1 cell responses only ~__ ms. (As long as __). Temporal Lobe: STS (__ __ __), neurons active in STS even after __ termination. (AKA this is where iconic memory takes place)

Active 25 ms Stimulus Superior temporal sulcus Stimulus

Short term store (STS): -You transfer information you paid attention to from the __ store into the __ __ __. - knowledge in the __ __ __ allows for active, __-__ processing of information in short term store. - limited __ span (__ capacity).

Sensory Short term store Long term store Top-down Memory (fixed)

STS (Working memory) capacity: -“magical number” __+ or - __ items. consistent limitations across a range of __ and experimental __: - perfect recall is difficult for lengths > _ or _. - span for numerals, letters, words is _ + or - _. - size of the __ matters. - better estimate: _ + or - _ chunks.

7 +or - 2 items Stimuli Paradigms 3 or 4 7 + or - 2 Chunk 4 + or - 1

Evidence for separate stores: Why STM and LTM not just a general memory category 3 kinds of evidence for separate stores: - __ position curves in __ recall test. - __ patterns in memory span tasks. - __ evidence

Serial, free Error Neurological

Free recall test: list of words (people, cotton, crown, season, round, paper, river, garage, chief) is read and then recalled in any order. -people usually get __ words (primacy effect) and __ words (recency effect). Primacy: __ __ __ Recent: __ __ __

1st words, last words Long term store Short term store

Evidence for LTS and STS from serial position curves: -faster rates (talking) affect the __ portion of the curve (because of less __/__) but do not affect the __ portion. Delay effects: - _ or _ second delay; count backwards by 3’s to prevent __. - this manipulation abolishes the __ effect but does not effect the __ effect.

Early Rehearsal/primacy Recency 10 or 30 Rehearsal Recency Primacy

How long does information last in STS? - might not be a matter of time - might be __ rather than __ decay. Decay hypothesis: as __ passes, short term memory __. -STM’s limited capacity may be due to __ decay: items just __ as time passes. Alternative hypothesis is interference: __ interference: new material “__” previously learned material. __ interference: old material make it harder to __ subsequently learned material. Most evidence favors the __ over __ __ hypothesis.

Interference Passive Time Fades Passive Degrade Retroactive, overwrites Proactive, retrieve Interference, passive decay

Brown Peterson Distractor Test: Subjects count backwards by 3’s during the __ interval. -the span drops precipitously because of __ __.

Retention Retroactive interference

Loss of info from STS is mainly due to __ not decay. Probe digit task: 519635147394 -last number is the __. What is the number __ the earlier mention of it? - __ in this example, 3 and 9 are the __ items. - there were fast and slow conditions. - __ should be more difficult because of more __ but it turned out that the number of __ items mattered, not the __.

Interference Probe After 7 Interfering Slow, decay Interfering, speed

Error patterns in STS vs LTS: - STS uses predominantly an __ code. - memory errors based on the __ confusability of the items, not the __ similarity. (E.g: confuse _/_ or _/_ rather than _/_ or _/_.) - however, all 3 codes (__, __, and __) exist in STS. - LTS seems to use an __ code with an emphasis on __.

Auditory Acoustic, visual V/B or S/F rather than F/E or B/R Visual, acoustic, and semantic Elaborative, semantics

Neurological evidence for separate stores: - __ __ linked to STS/working memory. - __ __ linked to LTM But it’s complicated, both can be activated during either __ term or __ term memory tasks. __ __ damage can cause STM impairment.

Prefrontal cortex Temporal lobes Short, long Temporal lobe

Critique of multi store model: - STM has multiple __ and is not a passive ‘__’ to LTM. - sometimes rote rehearsal is not enough to go to _ _ _, __ of processing matters.

Codes Gateway LTM Depth

The multi store model played an important role in the “__ __” in the 1960’s/70’s, but has been replaced. - key phenomena are still as relevant as ever though (p__, r__, r__, i__). - __ memory replaced the term short term memory.

Cognitive revolution Primacy, recency, rehearsal, interference Working

Depth of processing determines transfer to LTM: Depth of processing: the __ of activity devoted to __ new information. Shallow judgment: __ Intermediate judgement: __ Deep judgment: __

Level Processing Case, rhyme, sentence

Shallow processing: - __ like rehearsal - may be __. - insufficient to transfer info to __. (Counter to __)

Speech Covert LTM MSM

Elaboration: - Encodes inputs into __. - May __ new info in existing memory structures. - key to _ _ _ storage

Chunks Embed LTM

Multi-store model vs. WM model: Working memory: “a __ capacity system allowing the temporary __ and __ of information necessary for such complex tasks as c__, l__, and r__.” -uses __ inputs, info from _ _ _, and __-__ structures. Ex: 52 minus 24 - an __ (not passive), temporary representation of information that is maintained for the __ term.

Limited Storage and manipulation Comprehension, learning, and reasoning. Perceptual, LTM, ad-hoc Active, short

Working memory model: Central executive: __ and __ the processing of info to and from the __ systems. Slave systems: - __ loop - __-__ sketchpad - __ buffer The Slave systems are not gateways to the __ __ __.

Coordinates and controls Slave Phonological Visuo-spatial Episodic Long term memory.

Central executive: | Controlled manipulation of _ _ to allocate __, represent __, assess __, and direct __.

Working memory Resources, goals, relevance, attention.

Functions of central executive: and tests for each/examples -controlled __ of short term memory. (_-back and __-__ search task). Ex: deciding which memories needed for __. -setting __ and planning. (Tower of __). Ex: keeping track of __ __. -task __. (__ card sorting test) Ex: __-tasking -__ attention and __ inhibition. (__ test) Ex: crossing street in _ _.

Updating: N-back, self-ordered Tasks Goals: Hanoi To do Switching: Wisconsin Multi-tasking Stimulus, response: stroop UK

Central executive: automatic vs. controlled processing: Automatic processing: triggered by __ cues. - deeply __ (second nature). - typically occur with minimal __ awareness. - little interference with other __ activities. Controlled or willed processes: __ behaviors when automatic processes are inappropriate. -change the __ of cues for attention. Automatic processing and controlled processing occur in __ and compete to control behavior.

Situational Ingrained Conscious Concurrent Modifies Prioritization Parallel

The phonological loop: Limited capacity: maintains ~_ seconds of speech by __ verbal rehearsal. (7 + or - 2, or 4 + or -1). -it is not a halfway station to _ _ _ . (Otherwise analogous to _ _ _.) Evidence: __ speech rate correlates with __ memory span. (Across languages memory span differs). -articulatory __ or irrelevant __ reduces the memory span.

2, implicit Long term memory Short term store Faster Longer Suppression Speech

Word length effect: __ words are easier to rehearse than __ words. - auditory presentation, memory span task- _ vs _ syllable words - phonological loop has limited __. - half of subjects had to count out loud during the presentation of words, this coarticulation __ the word length effect and short words were no longer easier to recall than longer.

Short Long 1 vs 5 Capacity Eliminated

Articulatory suppression: when people talk out __, word doesn’t go through __ __.

Loud Phonological loop

Visuospatial sketchpad: - stores and manipulates __ and __ information. (Like c__, sh__, and s__ i__.) - __ research influenced the visuospatial sketchpad part of ___’s working model. - mental imagery was not a __ topic in experimental psych, but this changed in the 1960’s due to the work by brooks, Pavio, Shepard, and kosslyn.

Visual Spatial Color, shape, and spatial info Imagery Baddeley’s Respectable

Evidence for WM components: Phonological loop and visuospatial sketchpad are __ processes. - dual task __ (do two tasks at once) showed that __ occurs when both tasks use the same __. - interference doesn’t occur when the 2 tasks use __ mechanisms. Spatial and phonological processing do not __ with one another!

Independent Paradigms Interference Same Different Interfere

Episodic buffer: Brings together phonological, visual, and spatial/other info into a __, __ memory __. Creates an “__” in working memory. - “import” info from episodic (_ _ _) memory.

Single, temporary memory trace. Episode Long term memory

Research tasks used to study cognitive control: _-back, __ sorting, etc..

N-back Wisconsin

Frontal lobes and consequences of damage: Phineas __: -took iron rod to left__ __. -PFC is critical for __ setting, p__, and i___ control. Phineas’s personality changed __. -___ syndrome

Gage Frontal lobe Goal setting, planning, and inhibitory control Completely Dysexecutive

PFC (prefrontal cortex) is large (_/_of human cortex.) - the seat of __ memory. - one of the things that makes us __.

1/3 Working Human

Orbital, medial PFC: __-driven behavior and __. DLPFC, VLPFC: __ memory. Patients with PFC damage have deficits in: - __ switching. - setting __ and __. - updating __ memory.

Goal, planning Working Task Goals, planning Working

Early research showed that the frontal lobes are critical for maintaining the __ __ representation of __. -removed prefrontal cortex monkeys could no longer remember which bowl had __ under it.

Internal mental representation of info Food

More recent research has shown how internal representations can be maintained over __ periods in the _ _ _. Prefrontal cortex neurons exhibit __ activity for many seconds in the absence of any __ during the delay period.

Short PFC Sustained Stimulus

Spatial delayed response task: - eye tracking task of spatial __ __. - monkeys must move their eyes to a cued location after a __. -single cell recording in _ _ _. Electrophysiological recording of __. -_ neurons fire for cue, delay, and response. -__ neurons individually tuned to different __ movements. -errors on the trials when the wrong neurons fired in the _ _ _ _ _

Working memory Delay PFC Neurons 3 Delay Directional DLPFC

Convergent evidence of PFC neurons exhibiting sustained activity in the absence of a stimulus: -human _ _ _ _ data also suggests active maintenance in the _ _ _.

Fmri PFC

Dorsolateral PFC: - monitoring and manipulating __ info. - setting __/p__, task __, controlled updating of __ __, a__ and i___. -corresponds to the __ __.

Stored Goals/ planning Switching Working memory Attention and inhibition Central executive

Ventrolateral PFC: -e___, r__, and r__ of info. -corresponds to the __ __ and __ __.

Encoding, rehearsal, and retrieval Phonological loop and visuospatial sketchpad

Manipulation (cognitive control): - self ordered memory task (_ _ test) - pick an item in each set, avoid item __. (__ what already is picked). Monkey version: containers hidden for __ seconds between choices. DLPFC responsible for __ but not __ of info in WM. Monkeys with DLPFC lesions: - cannot remember which containers are empty when containers are __ during delay period (__ of object memory). - can recognize containers (__ object memories) over delays when containers are not __. (Maintenance of representation)

Working memory Repetitions Updating 10 Manipulation Maintenance Moved Manipulation Maintain Moved

Visuospatial and Phonological Buffer: | -fMRI data supports the __ between the phonological buffer and the visuospatial sketchpad

Dissociation

Maintenance in WM: frontal-posterior circuits - WM may result from __ activity between the _ _ _ and the rest of the __. Maintenance rehearsal: ___ briefly stored representations in LTM -VLPFC, promoter cortex, and posteriorcortical areas.

Coordinated PFC Brain Reactivate

``` Gradient of goal abstraction: Goals of various degrees of abstraction Anterior PFC: ___ goals and plans Promotor area: __ action plans Primary motor cortex: __ commands ``` Evidence: s__, double __, Brain __.

Abstract Specific Muscle Strokes, double dissociations, brain imaging

``` Long term memory: Multi store model conceptualizes LTM as __ box. -capacity: __ -duration: __ -code: __ ``` Evidence for semantic code in LTM: - we remember __ not verbatim (exact recall is difficult). - semantically similar word lists __ with each other in LTM. - semantic code is too __ to deal with all kinds of info in LTM.

One Limitless Indefinite Semantic Gist Interfere Simplistic

STS was too simple, now we have __ __ model.

Working memory

A taxonomy of memory: Long Term Memory / \ __ (__) memory. __ memory / \. / |. \ E__ mem s__ mem. 1)P__ mem 2) __ conditioning 3) p__

Left to right: Explicit (declarative) memory Implicit memory Episodic memory, semantic memory Procedural memory, classical conditioning, priming

Explicit (declarative) memory: -consciously recalled facts and knowledge that can be __. Episodic: auto__, personal __ with space/time stamp. Semantic: f__.

Verbalized Autobiographical, experiences Facts

Which is episodic which is semantic? 1) I ate pizza last night 2) George Washington was the 1st president

1) episodic | 2) semantic

__: “I remember” - tagged with spatial/temporal context. - learned in __ exposure. __: “I know” - not necessarily tagged with context - can be learned in a single exposure but can also be strengthened by __.

Episodic Single Factual (semantic) Repetition

Both semantic memory and episodic memory are: - communicated __ - __ accessible

Flexibly Consciously

Fuzzy line between episodic and semantic memory. -we learn facts in individual __ and many times forget the __. Source amnesia: __ of the info has been forgotten. “I know something but I can’t remember how I know that.”

Episodes Source Source

Implicit/non-declarative memory: -memory which is not always __ accessible or easy to __. Procedural memory: memory of how to do __ (__ skills). - __ tracing task (reverse mirror feedback) - procedural memory often spared with __. ``` Classical conditioning: Conditioned __ (CS) to conditioned __ (CR). -ex: __’s dogs -some forms of conditioning require a functioning __ system. ``` Priming: occurs without __ or awareness; lasts a long time -presentation of a __ makes responding to it (or something similar) __ or more __. Ex: __ figure task (people primed to see sketchy images as frog, airplane and umbrella).

Consciously Verbalize Things, Motor Mirror Amnesia Stimulus, response Pavlov’s Hippocampal ``` Intention Stimulus Faster Likely Gollins ```

PFC control of long term declarative memory: incidental encoding: learning as a __ of another activity Intentional encoding: learning as a result of __ goal of remember for later retrieval (s__).

Byproduct Explicit (studying)

Prefrontal control of long term declarative memory: - left __ VLPFC is active during intentional encoding of semantic info. - left __ VLPFC is active during the associated phonological processing.

Anterior Posterior

DLPFC active during episodic memory: - DLPFC is active during __ search of episodic memory. (Evidence from fMRI) - subjects shown words and asked if pleasant/unpleasant or abstract/concrete. - later subjects shown words and asked 1) did you see this word? 2) which scale was it rated on. - DLPFC more active when people recalled __ of the word.

Controlled Source

Where are memories located? Distributionist: ____: brain areas are __, each area participates a little in every __ and all functions are __ over the brain. Lashley: trained rats to do a maze - brain lesions and sections at diverse locations - it made little difference __ the lesion was, just how much tissue was __.

Equipotentiality Equipotential Function Spread Where Damaged

``` Where are memories located? Localist: -functional __ in the brain Ex: hippocampal lesions= __ amnesia Left hemisphere damage- __ deficits ``` - modularity of mind: - the mind is composed of __, closed, domain__ processing modules. - “modules” for language, vision, or memory - like a __ you can’t control

Specialization Anterograde Language Independent Specific Reflex

Modern view of where memories are located: distributionist vs localist -both positions are __ to a certain extent -networks of local __. Memories are distributed across thousands of __ and multiple brain __ but not __ throughout the brain. __ analogy

Correct Specialists Synapses Areas Equipotential Orchestra

Types of amnesia: Retrograde and anterograde -both are caused by __. Retrograde: __’s gradient: disruption of memories from __/__ before trauma. (Can’t recall __ things). Anterograde: can’t learn __ things Amnesia’s provide evidence for __(separate) memory systems.

Incident Ribot’s Minutes/hours Old New Explicit

Dissociative amnesia: ___ (stress) induced amnesia -__ abuse -terrorist events Continuity of memory is __; gaps in life history - caused by stress associated with __ experiences. - can result in loss of __ - memories usually return in a __ days. - controversial

Psychologically Sexual Disrupted Traumatic Identity Few

Case study: Clive Wearing -gifted __ -sick with __. -severe __ and __ amnesia -only remembers last current __. Can still play __ and __, write, read, talk, make jokes and have manners.

Musician Encephalitis Retrograde and anterograde Minute Piano and cards

Evidence for separate memory systems: Amnesia patient H.M (Henry __). - bumped head as a kid and had epileptic seizures - surgery removed portions of __ __ on both sides. - Henry became profoundly amnesic (__). Breakthroughs in memory research: General memory function can be dissociated from other cognitive functions such as __. _ _ memory can be dissociated from _ _ memory. -HM’s normal __ span but inability to make __ memories falsified the multistore model view that STM is a __ to LTM.

Molaison Temporal lobes Anterograde Language Long term, (short term) working memory Digit New Gateway

Within LTM, __(explicit) memory can be dissociated from____ (implicit) memory.

Declarative Non-declarative

Evidence for separate explicit/implicit memory systems: -H.M had a severe __/__ memory disorder. -H.M was almost normal on __ memory tasks. Such as mirror __, p__, and __ conditioning. -dissociation shows that explicit memory uses the __ __ and implicit/procedural uses the __.

Explicit/declarative Implicit Tracing Priming Classical Temporal lobes Cerebellum

Motor learning in amnesia: - mirror tracing test - H.M __

Retained

Priming is __ in amnesia. -subjects exposed to word lists -tested 3 different ways; free recall, cued recall using first _ letters, and stem completion (“1st word that comes to mind”). - the stem completion task is a form of __ priming. - amnesiacs aren’t __.

Spared 3 Repetition Impaired

Semantic vs episodic memory: patient L.P: - damage to the left __ temporal lobe. - complementary deficit to that of _._. -intact ___ memory for both past and ongoing personal episodes (ex: conversations with psychologist, marriage, kids) -severe __ and __ impairment for __ knowledge (Ex: can’t remember psychologists name, or the news)

Posterior H.M Autobiographical Anterograde and retrograde Semantic

Being able to discern a paragraph with words made of letters slightly jumbled uses: __ __ processing

Top down

2 conceptions of memory: Memory traces: -stored and retrieved __-__ processing (rote, passive) Re(constructive: -processing __-__ processing (active) Which are we usually using?

Bottom up Top down Re(constructive)

Herman Ebinghaus: - __-_ processing - stream of __. - contiguity is how the mind acquires new __. Methods: List learning without __ or adding __ by using CVC __ (nonsense syllables). Serial anticipation with relearning: - # of trials to learn the list (____) - after a delay, # of trials to relearn (___) Came up with the forgetting curve: Savings = (__-__)/__ -reflects how much was __. -you plot savings against __ interval (days between original learning and relearn). Replicated thousands of times

Bottom up Consciousness Associations Chunking, meaning Trigrams OrigTrials RelearnTrials Savings= (origTrials-RelearnTrials)/origTrials Remembered Retention

Practice the savings formula with the following data: 10 trials to learn 4 trials to relearn

Savings= (10-4)/10 So 60% savings

The learning curve: ___’s practice data -one of the most robust results in psychology, shows that practice makes __. - the more frequently one memorizes an item, the stronger the __ __. - also replicated thousands of times

Ebbinghaus’s Perfect Memory trace

Bottom up processing: incidental rote rehearsal: - incidental __ test method: - subjects do not expect a memory test - repetition helps __ but not __. - subjects memorized a 4 digit # and repeated __ words for 2,6, or 18 seconds. distractor words were repeated 3-27 times. - despite the repetition, there was __ recall of distractor words. - # of repetitions did not affect __ but frequent repetition improved word __(from list).

Encoding Recognition, recall Distractor Poor Recall Recognition

Automatic encoding of spatial, frequency, and temporal info: - automatic bottom-up processing of info: - __ (location) - __(how often) - __ __ (order) Uninformed and informed participants were equally accurate at making word ___ judgments.

Spatial Frequency Temporal information Frequency

Top down processing: Bartlett the War of the Ghosts -subjects studied a folk tale and then had to recall the next day reproduction showed 3 general patterns: - considerably __ than the original due to omissions. - modern __; words taken from subject’s culture. - story became more __ and __. Bartlett concluded that remembering is a process of __ rather than __.

Shorter Syntax Coherent and consequential Reconstruction, retrieval

Schema: | Flexible __ or __ framework (knowledge about objects or events) helps __/__ info.

Concept Cognitive Organize/interpret

Knowledge influences what we remember: -sharpening errors: incorrect __. - flattening errors: inability to remember __ inconsistent with the __. - intrusions: incorrectly “__” items consistent with the schema

Elaborations Details, schema Remembering

Schematization of Memories: - subjects told “last session not done yet go sit in this office for 35 seconds.” - experimenter asks them to recall what they saw in room - recall biased by ‘__ __/__’ - 29/30 recalled desk/chair - 9/30 recalled books (false) Memory based on __ and __(things that stand out).

Office stereotype/ schema Schema, exceptions

Scripts: Schemas for events: Scripts- organized knowledge structure about the __ and __ of actions. Frontal lobe damaged patients remembered as many __ in each script as normal patients, but were impaired at recalling the correct step __. Frontal lobes responsible for the __/__ of steps in scripts.

Order and content Actions Order Planning/ordering

Evidence from expert/novice research: - knowledge improves your __. - expert performance show the importance of __-__ processing (knowledge) in memory. - chess masters could reproduce the board when the placement of pieces reflected actual chess-masters’ level games. - they were using __ of game not __ memory like the novices

Memory Top-down Knowledge Episodic

Bottom up vs. top down? NO -processing strategy is on a __ that reflects the influence of a person’s __ on the processing of new material. Novice Expert ___-__ Sensory . __-__ Data Prior knowledge

Continuum Knowledge Left to right: Bottom up Top down

How to become an expert: -practice usually is the strongest determinant of the __ and __ of memory. 10 year rule: it takes at least 10 years of intensive, __ practice to become world-level expert in anything. The more we practice something, the better we remember it . There is no royal road to knowledge

Accuracy and longevity Deliberate

Stages of processing (encoding): Stimulus ``` Visual features and surface sound features (__ processing) ``` Phonological, orthographic & Syntactic properties Meaning & associations (__/___ processing) Must do all 4 stages, can’t __ any of them.

Shallow Deep/semantic Skip

The deeper the processing the better the __. What do you remember seeing? (__ test). Walsh+Jenkins: intentional 24 word memory test. - orienting task: controls how info is __ (shallow or deep) - intention to learn group recalled _._ words, is this word pleasant or unpleasant group got _._ words recalled because they processed the __.

Recall Recall Encoded 8. 5 9. 5 Meaning

Intention to learn has __ effect. What is critical for memory is how the material is __. Intention may affect how they process the material, however, and hence the __.

Little Processed Memory

Depth of processing is vague but includes the idea of considering the __ rather than the __ form.

Meaning Surface

2 forms of rehearsal: Maintenance rehearsal: maintains the item at the __ level of processing. Elaborative rehearsal: links the items to more __ concepts and strengthens the __.

Same Meaningful Memory

Deeper processing is not always better. -different strategies may be required for optimal memory of words vs. pictures. Words: __ processing. (__) Picture: physical __ conditions

Deep (semantic) Orienting

If an exam taps shallow processing than performance will be better after __ rather than __ processing. Transfer-or-test-appropriate processing: Encoding operations must be __ to the upcoming memory test.

Shallow, deep Appropriate

Optimal memory performance occurs when cognitive operations at encoding and retrieval are __. For example: - people presented with 24 word pairs. - words to be recalled in caps, like BUG - encoding context was a weak (plant) or strong (insect) association word. Optimal memory performance would occur with congruent recall words and encoding context.

Congruent

Retrieval Processes: Encoding Stimulus __ | Encoding (__ stimulus event) | Memory trace (Encoded interpretation+ prior __).

Event Interpreted Knowledge

Retrieval: ``` Retrieval environment (Specific __ +environmental __) | Retrieval cue (Interpreted retrieval ___) | Retrieved memory __ | Remembered __ (Interpreted trace) ```

Request(s) Cues Environment Trace Event

Positive effects of retrieval cues: -recognition and recall differ in the __ of retrieval cues provided. Recall: __ retrieval cues provided. Recognition: retrieval cue (hint) __. Ex: no cue, g, gr, gra, grap, grape Retrieval cues mimic the __ environment

Number No Provided Encoding

Recognition superiority effect: Easier to __ an item than generate it without a __. -multiple choice test __ than essay.

Recognize Prompt Easier

Retrieval cues facilitate memory: -list of words, participants told that memory for items will be tested, not category names. a) recall is tested, since list is long some items will be __. B) category names presented as __ to see how many forgotten items people can recall Some words were __ but not __.

Forgotten Cues Available, accessible

Available: words __ and __. Accessible: words __ and __ and could be __. Retrieval cues make available info __.

Encoded and stored Encoded and stored, retrieved Accessible

Coordination of encoding and retrieval: -recall is improved if the ___ or emotional state is the same during testing and initial __. Context vs. state dependent: Context dependent: __, environmental factors. State dependent: __, physiological factors.

Physiological Encoding External Internal

Baddeley’s Underwater Example: Asked divers to study word lists on land or under water and then tested the divers on land or underwater. - better recall when the test context __ the study context - no difference in recognition in __ and __ context conditions. - the context provides additional __ that help retrieval.

Matched Congruent, incongruent Cues

Drug induced state dependent memory (SDM): People had better retrieval when their state was the same during __ and __. (Whether this was sober, or on marijuana) Can also occur with caffeine and medication

Encoding and retrieval

Arousal and state dependent memory (SDM): Emotional state can cause internal __ state -similar state of __ at encoding and retrieval facilitates memory. The process of reconstruction succeeds to the degree that the test environment is __ to the learning environment.

Physiological Arousal Similar

An experimenter discovers that the time for people to detect a string of letters on a computer screen is 400 milliseconds and they the time to push one of two buttons as to whether that string is a legitimate word versus a nonword is 575 milliseconds. What technique would be most useful in figuring out the time for word recognition, independent of letter-string acquisition?

Subtractive method

True or false: Behaviorism’s idea of stimulus response chains provided an accurate theoretical framework to explain complex cognitive processes (like problem solving or learning your native language).

False

The information processing approach within cognitive psychology uses the metaphor of the mind as a __, whereas the parallel distributed processing approach is based on a metaphor of the __ __.

Computer Nervous system

Which of the following is most likely to lead to an echoic representation in the sensory store: - seeing a word on a computer screen - listening to part of a song’s melody - putting your hand in cold spaghetti to simulate guts - a gory screen shot of a movie you saw

Listening to part of a song’s melody

__ is the process by which stores information is extracted from memory.

Retrieval

In a free recall test, subjects’ better memory of the first items in a list of words is called the __ effect

Primacy

True or false: | Interference (not passive decay) is the primary cause of information loss (forgetting) in memory.

True

Self ordered search tasks ask people (or monkeys) to keep track of their previous responses. The task is analogous to keeping track of the rooms someone has already searched for their lost car keys. Self ordered search tasks asses what function of the central executive Controlled __ of __ __ memory

Controlled updating of short term memory

__ processes are triggered by situational cues, occur with minimal conscious awareness, and do not interfere with other concurrent activities.

Automatic

Which part of the brain is associated with higher order executive functions (like manipulating stored information) and appears to correspond to the central executive in the working memory model.

Dorsolateral prefrontal cortex

The ___ part of the working memory model brings together phonological, visual, spatial, and other information to create a single, integrated memory trace.

Episodic buffer

True or false The more concrete and specific the goals or plans that must be maintained in working memory, the more anterior the localization of their function within the frontal lobes.

False

Thorndike’s Law of Effect: Responses that have led to a desirable consequence are more likely to be __ Responses that have led to an undesirable consequence are less likely to be __. - trial and __ learning

Repeated Repeated Error

The independent variable is the variable that is varied or __ by the researcher The dependent variable is the response that is __.

Manipulated Measured

Operant conditioning: Consequences of behavior determine whether those behaviors increase or decrease in __/__.

Frequency/intensity

Classical conditioning is when you associate an involuntary __ and a __. (Pavlov dog)

Response Stimulus

__ data: refers to feelings and experiences that depend on the individual’s own particular viewpoint and traits __ data: refers to objects and events in the world that anyone can, in principe observe

Subjective Objective

What imagery technique is this: Electrodes are places in the scalp and the electrical activity under the electrodes is recorded and displayed in graphic form They can see which parts of the brain are electrically active during various tasks It’s drawback is that it measures activity in very __ brain areas at once.

Electroencephalography (EEG) Large

What imagery technique is this: A small amount of radioactive glucose (or oxygen) is injected in the bloodstream. When it reaches the brain, any areas that are active take up this glucose during metabolism and become slightly radioactive. Recording devices allow researchers to measure the radioactivity and thereby determine which brain areas are active during different cognitive tasks Drawback is that it usually takes 40 seconds or more for activity to translate into an image.

PET scans and cerebral blood flow

What imagery technique is this: Uses magnetic fields to construct images of the brain. More active parts of the brain require the blood to deliver more oxygen and glucose. This allows researchers to record brain activity as a person carries out various tasks by measuring changes in the magnetic properties of blood as it undergoes changes in oxygenation levels, it is in real time.

FMRI

What imagery technique is this: noninvasive procedure that uses magnetic fields to stimulate nerve cells in the brain to improve symptoms of depression. typically used when other depression treatments haven't been effective.

TMS

``` Name the lobe: Reasoning Higher level cognition Motor skills Expressive language ```

The frontal lobe

``` Name the lobe: Processing tactile sensory information such as -pressure -touch -pain ```

The parietal lobe

Name the lobe: Interpreting sounds and language Formation of memories

Temporal lobe

Name the lobe: | Interpreting visual stimuli and info

The occipital lobe

What part of working memory did word length effect and articulatory suppression test?

Phonological loop

What part of the brain is active during controlled search of episodic memory?

DLPFC

Test 1 Flashcards

(178 cards)