Test 1 Flashcards
(144 cards)
1
Q
Naturalistic Fallacy
A
A leap from how it is to how it should be
i.e. Women should parent more because of innate sex differences
2
Q
Moralistic Fallacy
A
A leap from how it should to how it is
i.e. All people should be treated equally, so if an experiment highlights sex differences it is sexist
3
Q
Immediate Context
A
An aspect that affects human behaviour
i.e. you have a great day so you cook an extravagant meal for your spouse when you get home. Some of this behaviour could be attributed to the fact that you had a great day so you were already in a good mood
4
Q
Hormones and Neurotransmitters
A
Another factor that affects human behaviour
i.e. Might be more prone to anger due to naturally expressing certain hormones more
5
Q
Previous Experiences
A
A factor that affects human behaviour
Past experiences may influence how you behave currently
6
Q
Genes
A
A factor that affects human behaviour
May affect what you are more prone to
7
Q
Social Constructs
A
The influence your culture has on human behaviour
i.e. if your culture says i’m sorry a lot then you are more likely to behave the same
8
Q
Evolution
A
Certain traits behavioral traits might have been passed down through generations because it leads to more likely reproductive success. This is now expressed in our own current behaviour
9
Q
3 Misconceptions about Adaptive traits
A
Solely genetically determined
If it’s evolutionary we can’t change it
Current mechanisms optimally designed
10
Q
3 conditions of natural selection
A
- Individuals within a population must vary in traits
- At least some variation must have genetic basis
- Variation must influence reproductive success
11
Q
Variation
A
Individuals vary in phenotypic traits within and across species
Provides “raw material” for evolution
12
Q
Heritability
A
Only some variations are inherited. Genes are the mode of all inheritance
13
Q
Survival and Reproduction
A
Survival means nothing if fail to reproduce. survivability leads to increased likelihood of reproductive success due to more opportunity and increased sexual selection
14
Q
Sexual selection
A
traits that increase likelihood of reproductive success, even if it has no survival benefit or endangers species
15
Q
Theory of Special Creation
A
believes that all life was created through the divine intervention of God
16
Q
3 Main components of the theory of special creation
A
Species do not change through time
Species were independently created from one another
Species were created recently
17
Q
Lamarkian Evolution
A
If a species changes throughout its life, these changes are passed down to their offspring.
Also, species evolved to higher forms from an ancestor. Not true since all animals are equally as evolved, just evolved differently
18
Q
Ethology
A
The study of animal behaviour
19
Q
2 levels of ethological analysis
A
proximate explanation and ultimate explanation
20
Q
Proximate Explanation
A
The mechanism underlying behaviour (how)
i.e. genes, hormones, physiology
21
Q
Ultimate Explanation
A
Adaptive explanation of a behaviour (why)
22
Q
Tinbergen’s 4 Questions of Behaviour
A
Causation (mechanism) , Development (ontogeny), Functional (adaptive), Evolution (phylogeny)
23
Q
Causation
A
what biological mechanisms responsible for human behaviour
24
Q
Development
A
what environmental factors that influence development impact behaviour
25
Functional
how close does behaviour influence individuals ability to survive and reproduce
26
Evolution
how did evolutionary processes result in the evolution of the behaviour
27
Sociobiological controversty
Argues that behaviour is influence by biology and genetics than by culture, however this is strongly resisted by social scientists
28
Criticisms of Evolutionary Psycholgoy
Not every trait has to be adaptive. Thought that every behavioural trait was an adaptation, but this is not true
Some think that adaptations are just stories and that instead of starting with a hypothesis, some fit observations to their own stories
29
Top Down
Theory driven using existing theories to derive hypotheses
30
Bottom Up
Observation driven. Start with obsercation and work up to a hypothesis and theory based on this observation
31
Evolved Psychological Mechanisms
Solved a specific problem that inhibits reproductive success. Tends to be a very narrow slice of information. The input informs what the adaptive problem is that the organism is facing. Input is transferred through decision rules to output. Output can be any form of activity (psychological, physiological, behaviour, etc.) that directs the organism towards a solution of a specific adaptive problem.
32
Comparing species
by comparing data about the same trait from multiple species we can form functional hypotheses about that trait.
33
Cross Cultural methods
by comparing across cultures we can form hypotheses about traits being either adaptive or culturally learned. If a trait is universally present, it is likely an evolved trait and has not been learned through culture.
34
Physiological and brain imaging methods
Allow us to test the biological substrates of psychological adaptations
i.e. testosterone increases in men in the presence of attractive females
35
Genetic methods
Allow us to estimate the relative importance of genes vs the environment for certain traits
i.e. twin studies on menstruation onset
36
Comparing males and females
Allow us to form hypotheses about sexual adaptations
i.e. men are more jealous if cheating in a relationship involves sexual relations, which makes sense because males cannot be certain if a child is theirs or not
37
Comparing individuals within a species
Allows us to form hypotheses related to a variety of individual factors
i.e. anxiety like behaviours seem to be increased in subordinate individuals and dominant individuals tend to be more risky
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Comparing the same individuals in different contexts
Allows us to form hypotheses related to the current context, experience, and development
39
Experimental Methods
Allow us to test hypotheses about evolutionary adaptations by manipulating a specific variable
40
Major Sources for testing evolutionary hypothesis
Include experimental observations, archaeological records, hunter gatherer societies, and self reports
41
Other sources for testing evolutionary hypothesis
might consist of life history data, human products
42
Experimental observations
allow us to systematically quantify a specific experimental prediction.
Lacks natural setting and laboratory artifacts
43
Archaeological records
provides snapshots of life through time and allow us to infer evolutionary change and diversification
44
Hunter gatherer societies
Gain insight on how our ancestors might have lived by studying societies with more congruent life styles
45
Self report
only available in humans and is when we collect data based on reports from the subjects
46
Life history data
Searching for data through countless public records available such as birth and death certificates, marriage certificates, etc.
47
Biological Definition of Evolution
A change in frequency of an allele or genotype in a population over time
48
Phenotypic evolution
A change in frequency of alleles, resulting in a change in the distribution of phenotypic traits in a population
49
5 mechanisms of evolution
```
Natural selection
Sexual selection
Mutations
Gene flow
Genetic drift
```
50
Mutations
A novel genetic difference between parents and offspring
Arise randomly
Required for natural selection to occur
51
Types of mutations
Point mutations
Chromosome inversion
Gene duplication
52
Point Mutations
Change of a single base pair due to a substitution, insertion, or deletion
53
Non-synonymous mutation
Point mutation that completely changes the protein
54
Synonymous mutation
No effect at all
55
Chromosome Inversion
Flipping of chromosome segment
Typically has no individual consequences, but can influence recombination and thus the allele frequency in the next generation
56
Gene duplication
Duplication of a segment of DNA
Typically leads to two of the same proteins, allowing the extra protein to evolve into something with a new function
57
Mutations and Fitness
Most mutations have negative of little effects on fitness
Beneficial mutations are rare but would be quickly picked up by selection
58
Mendel's first law
Law of segregation: the two members of a gene pair segregate from each other in the formation of gametes
59
Mendel's second law
Law of independent assortment: genes for different traits assort independently of one another in the formation of gametes
60
Genetic recombination
occurs during meiosis
Genes close together are more likely to be passed on with each other (linkage)
61
Expression of alleles
Different alleles are expressed in different ways depending on the number of copies
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Polygenic traits
traits are influenced by more than a single gene
63
Calculating Genetic Variance
Vt = Vg + Ve
Total variance = variance in a trait due to genetic differences + variance in a trait due to all individual differences
64
Primary Articles
original source for virtually all scientific knowledge. Typically involves things like experiments testing hypotheses.
Always peer reviewed to ensure it is scientifically sound
65
Secondary Literature
Takes all primary literature that exists and tries to summarize it. Compromised mostly of opinion or review papers
Useful when trying to learn about a subject for the first time because offer a broader review of a field rather than smaller details that can be confusing
66
Theory
Assertion about the existence of patterns and processes
can also be rejected are modified as new research comes out
67
Prediction
statement about the empirical pattern that we expect to observe if the hypothesis is true
68
Five Mechanisms of Evolution
```
Natural Selection
Sexual Selection
Mutations
Gene Flow
Genetic Drift
```
69
3 Conditions of Natural Selection
1. Individuals within the population must vary in phenotypic traits
2. The traits must have at least some genetic basis
3. The traits must lead to an increased chance of survival/reproductive success
70
Natural Selection
The differential survival and reproduction of individuals due to differences in traits
71
Adaptation
Adaptations increase the ability to survive and reproduce compared to individuals without the trait
72
Individual Level Selection
Darwin proposed natural selection acts on variation among individuals, causing some to reproduce more than others
Evolution acts on populations, not individuals
73
Gene Level Selection
Dawkins proposed the idea that natural selection acts on individual genes (more specifically alleles)
Genes 'compete' to be passed on to the next generation
Doesn't reject Darwin's view, more so compliments it
74
Group Level Selection
Natural selections operates on traits above the gene and individual level, acting on average traits of the population
not much empirical evidence
75
How is natural selection measured
Selection differential
| Selection Gradient
76
Selection Differential
Measures strength of selection. Mean trait value of individuals that survive after a selection even minus mean of entire population before event
s=x*-x
where s is selection differential, x is the mean trait value before selection, and x* is the mean value after selection
77
Selection Gradient
Regression of the trait value of each individual against their relative fitness
78
Directional (positive) selection
Variants that are the most extreme in one direction of the mean are favoured
Natural selection moves toward preferred trait
79
Stabilizing selection
Prevents changes to a trait by selecting against variants that deviate from the optimal value
80
Diversifying (divergent) selection
Variants on either extreme of the mean value are favoured
Selection causes a population to diverge into two directions
81
How is variation maintained in populations
1. Mutation Selection balance
2. Frequency dependent selection
3. Heterozygote advantage
4. Gene x environment interactions
82
Balancing Selection
Any form of selection that results in the maintenance of genetic variation
83
Mutation-selection balance
mutations constantly introducing new variants into population, though minor evolutionary force
May contribute enough to maintain variation when selection is weak
84
Frequency dependent selection
Individual fitness depends on the frequency of its genotype in the population
85
Positive frequency dependent selection
When the common genotype has the highest fitness
86
Negative frequency dependent selection
When the rare genotype has the highest fitness
87
Heterozygote advantage
If the relative fitness of the heterozygote genotype is above 0.7 then allele will be maintained in the population, even if the relative fitness of the homozygous genotype is small
88
Genotype x environment interactions
Fitness is determined by an interaction between genotype and environment
89
Dispersal/migration
physical movement of individual from one population to another
90
Gene flow
movement of alleles to new population
91
Effect of gene flow on small and large populations
Large population: small effect (nat. selection still dominant force)
Small pop: Large influence
92
Low gene flow effect
Can rescue inbred populations from lack of genetic diversity
93
Medium gene flow effect
provides enough variation to increase efficiency of natural selection
94
High gene flow
can swamp out variation and once again lack genetic diversity
95
Genetic rescue
humans manually inserting animals into different populations to rescue population from low genetic diversity
96
Genetic Drift
Random change of allele frequencey from generation to generation
97
How does genetic drift occur?
1. Alleles with neutral effect on fitness are completely random
2. Population bottleneck: catastrophic event kills most of a population
3. Founder effects: new population established by small population
98
How does drift affect evolution
Effects greater in small population
If only evolutionary mechanism in play, a single allele will become fixed (directly proportional to it's starting frequency)
Causes population to follow unique evolutionary paths
Can produce substantial change in allele frequency
99
Species Concepts
Morphological
Biological
Phylogenetic
100
Morphological species concepts
determine species based on morphological characteristics
Easy but wildly innacurate
101
Biological species concepts
groups organized based on ability to breed
testable but not always practical
102
Phylogenetic species concepts
species groups that display >5% genetic divergence on phylogeny
103
Why is studying humans limiting
Ethical reasons
Cannot control every aspect of genes and environment in humans (often gave different lives/backgrounds)
Self report isn't always the best
104
Why is it important to study the world in a reductionist perspective
must analyze each level of science in order to grasp the bigger picture, and there must be collaborating with individuals outside of your field to fill in these blind spots
105
Evolutionary Psych
Evolution builds on traits and structures that already exist to have multiple adaptations throughout species and generations
106
The Reptile Brain
A.k.a. the most primitive brain, is responsible for the basic survival needs
Consists of medulla which is responsible for regulation of the heart, as well as breathing, feeding, and sexual motivation
107
homologous traits
traits that are shared across species with slight adaptations
108
The limbic system
Hippocampus one of the major functional advancements of the limbic system.
Responsible for stong episodic memories which is important for altering how we respond to stimuli in the future.
Endocrine responsible for memory, emotions, four Fs, and endocrine system.
109
Neo Cortex
Most recent layer, helps with higher level thinking and creativity. Allows us to plan in the moment and for the future. Reason we can use tools, though might not be exclusive to having a neo cortex.
110
Crayfish experiment
One crayfish always shows dominance over the other. The one that always loses elicits anxiety behaviour, will not explore maze when given opportunity unlike crayfish that wins or never fought. Giving losing crayfish anti-anxiety drugs allows it to explore maze. Indicates that many of our systems are highly conserved
111
Food acquisition and selection
most animals spend more time on "food issues" than in any other activity.
Important to find out how to acquire necessary calories while avoiding dangerous toxins.
112
Carbohydrates
our primary source of energy
easily metabolized
quick and efficient source of energy
Fruits, starchy vegetables, etc
113
Fats
"secondary" source of energy
used for storing energy
more energy efficient than carbohydrates
more complex and harder to break down
114
5 basic tastes
sweet, salty, bitter, sour, umami
115
Food selection in rats
Prefer sweet and avoid bitter foods. Adjust their eating in response to internal states: deficits in water, calories, and salt
Rats are very neophobic
116
Disease-avoidance hypothesis
an emotional adaptation that serves to avoid disease and microbial attack by motivating strong withdrawal from aversive stimuli
117
Disease-avoidance hypothesis evidence
1. Humans have an aversion to cues associated with the presence of harmful microbes
2. Cues that illicit disgust are universal
3. There is an age and sex difference in disgust sensitivity
118
Spices and Antimicrobial Hypothesis
Humans like spices because they kill or inhibit growth of microorganisms and prevent the production of toxins in food
119
Spices and Antimicrobial Hypothesis Evidence
1. Spices kill bacteria
2. More spices are used in hotter climates, where food tends to spoil quicker
3. More spices are used in meat dishes, and meat spoils easier
4. Food poisoning higher in countries that use less spices
120
The Hunting Hypothesis
Hunting was the primary source of foraging during human evolution.
Humans eat more meat than any other primate species (20-90% of our diet cross culturally)
121
Evidence that we have evolved to eat meat
1. We have an enormous small intestine for breaking down protein and absorbing nutrients
2. Enamel coating on fossilized teeth
3. We cannot produce
122
Why Hunt?
1. Meat is high in calories so sustains food for family longer and allows father to parent more.
2. strong male coalitions
3. Caloric density
4. Tool use (helps us develop new tools)
5. Strong reciprocal altruism and social exchange
6. Sexual division of labour
7. The showoff hypothesis (look good for the ladies
123
The Gathering Hypothesis
There is also strong evidence to suggest that gathering fruit was a major source of foraging (35% in hunter-gatherer societies)
Other primates eat even more plant food
124
Hunter-Gatherer Sex differences in cognition
Object location memory (women better) vs. mental rotation (men better).
Men better at north, south, east, west, whereas women better at using landmarks
125
Lactose tolerance
example of recent evolution
126
Fear
an emotional response to a threatening or potentially dangerous stimulus/situation
127
Where is fear processed
amygdala
128
Responses to fear
1. Freezing
2. Fleeing
3.Fighting
4. Submission
5. Playing dead
6 Fainting
129
Freezing
allows assessment of the situation, and helps conceal from predator if you aren't sure you've been spotted yet
130
Fleeing
Allows to distance self from threats
131
Fighting
Attacking threat with physical force in hopes of turning the tables
132
Submission or appeasement
Submissive body language that implies lack of threat (usually to member of own species)
133
Playing dead
feigning or faking death when fighting or fleeing is futile
134
Fainting
Loss of consciousness to signal to the attacker one is not a threat
135
Anxiety Disorder and Evolution
Modern life very different to what we adapted to: "first world problems" may represent ambiguous "threats" that are complicated to solve
Perception of social status is complicated in the world of social media
136
Physiological responses to fear
Release of epinephrine (adrenaline) from the adrenal glands
137
Adrenaline benefits
```
Aids in blood clotting
Increases glucose release
Increases heart rate
Increases blood flow to muscles
Increases breathing rate
```
138
Specific fears
Humans are adapted to respond to specific stimuli that may have represented real dangers for our ancestors
139
Increased fear of public speaking and social status when:
Lack of experience
Degree of evaluation
Status difference
New ideas
140
Senescence
The deterioration of all bodily mechanisms as organisms grow older
141
Why Die?
Life history trade-offs: Investment into improving one aspect of life history comes at a cost to another
Pleiotropic Theory of Senescence
142
Pleiotropy
Some genes that improve fitness early in life have negative consequences for fitness later in life
143
Pleiotropy
When one gene has two or more different effects
144
Suicide Adaptation Hypothesis
Suicide most likely to occur when an individual has a dramatically reduced ability to contribute to his or her own inclusive fitness
i.e. poor future health, chronic infirmity, disgrace or failure, poor mating prospects, and perception of being a burden
