Test 1

Question 1

what is theory and how should it be evaluated?

Answer 1

• provides a framework for our ideas
• identify what is important and what is not important
• it should not be evaluated in terms of absolute truth/falsity, but in terms of their range or scope of validity

Question 2

what is the difference between natural science and social science?

Answer 2

• in natural science, theories agree on the fundamentals but in social science theories are in internal conflict with their fundamentals
• theories in natural science will typically replace one another but theories in social science will co-exist and compete

Question 3

what is positivism?

Answer 3

positivism is the idea that was introduced by early sociologists that thought the law of social behaviour would predict phenomena. this is the idea that social sciences should only use quantitative methods to follow natural science.

Question 4

what is the difference between ontology and epistemology?

Answer 4

ontology is the science that is concerned with the kinds of things that exist and specifying the processes and relations of things that make them what they are. epistemology is the sciene that is concerned with how we know something is real or how we obtain knowledge. this deals with the relationship between the knower and the known.

Question 5

what does democrate’s theory suggest?

Answer 5

democrates’ theory is of the atom and the void in which he argues that everything is made of atoms and the void. this suggests that there is a reality beneath the reality that we see.

Question 6

how many levels of reality are there and what are they according to comte?

Answer 6

in increasing order of complexity, there are 5 levels of reality which are physical, chemical, biological, psychological and sociological

Question 7

what is the connection between common sense and science?

Answer 7

common sense refers to conventional wisdom in which is the source of much of what we think of the world. science is what actually explains reality as it is. common sense and science are connected in that elements of reality that rooted from common sense can be proved through science, and as these claims become recognized as valid, the science becomes common sense.

Question 8

what is the ontology of natural science?

Answer 8

natural science argues that reality is objective because things happen out of causal necessity. Explanations will be of universal deductive scope.

Question 9

what is the ontology of social science?

Answer 9

reality is both objective and subjective because while things may objectively exist, everything is laced with meaning so that anyone may interpret something differently., subjective to their own identity. as such, explanations will be of context dependent and probabilistic scope.

Question 10

what is the epistemology of natural science?

Answer 10

natural science obtains its knowledge from the outside, through observable measurement.

Question 11

what is the epistemology of social science?

Answer 11

social science obtains its knowledge from the outside and the inside, through both observation and intersubjective understanding

Question 12

why can we never achieve complete objectivity? what is another term for objectivity?

Answer 12

another term for objectivity is value neutrality. we can never achieve true objectivity because we, as humans, have inherent biases and tendencies. this is due to our intersubjectivity with our research subjects.

Question 13

what is intersubjectivity? what is it the opposite of? what should we always note with this?

Answer 13

intersubjectivity is the unique relationship that human researchers have with their human subjects in that we share an identity of being human, and can thus understand them through empathy and sympathy. it is the opposite of solipsism which suggests that you can only understand yourself. we have to note that intersubjectivity is limited because you will never truly understand an experience unless you have personally experienced it as well?

Question 14

what is a research method that allows for greater intersubjectivity?

Answer 14

participant observation allows for greater intersubjectivity because we are able to take on the role of the subject and thus better understand them.

Question 15

how does the nominalist view compare with the social realism view on collective concepts? which is the dominant view? how should we think of these views?

Answer 15

nominalism views collective concepts as simple figures of speech because they believe that only individuals have agency, so the structure has no influence. this is based on reductionism. it believes that any totality is the aggregation of its parts, and explains phenomena from micro to macro.
social realism views collective concepts as the emergent realities or things that come out of human interaction, creating something that is more than the sum of its parts. it emphasizes structures and social systems and is based on the doctrine of emergence. it suggests that the totality is more than the sum of its parts and explains phenomena from macro to micro. the dominant view is social realism. we should think of nominalism and social realism as a continuum.

Question 16

what is reductionism? how does it compare to the doctrine of emergence?

Answer 16

reductionism is the idea that everything can be reduced to the property of its parts. the doctrine of emergence suggests that when you bring elements together, their association creates a reality that is more than the addition of the units.

Question 17

what is a good example of the doctrine of emergence?

Answer 17

george simmel’s theory on formal sociology in which he investigated group dynamics when a dyad became a triad. he suggested that there were 3 new opportunities that emerged with the addition of the third unit, not because the third was inherently different, but because it changed the composition of the group.
the first possibility was mediation in which the third unit can now act as a mediator between the other two during conflict.
the second possibility is tertius gaudens, in which refers to the ‘third who enjoys’. this is the situation in which the third party benefits from the jealous attention and competitive favours of the other two.
the third possibility is divde et impera, which is divide and rule. this is the situation where the third party will actively pit the other two against each other as to gain a powerful dominating position.

Question 18

who was francis bacon?

Answer 18

francis bacon was often recognized as the most important voice in modern science because he introduced experiment and precise measurement. he came up with the idea of idola mentis.

Question 19

what is idola mentis? list the four idols.

Answer 19

idola mentis is the theory that francis bacon devised, referring to the idols of the mind (falsehoods of the mind) that lead to misunderstanding. tribe, cave, marketplace, theatre

Question 20

what is an idol of the tribe?

Answer 20

tribe refers to the deceptive beliefs that are inherent in our human nature. this refers to our common tendency to exaggerate and distort. we often suppose more regularity and order in the world than there actually is because our brain is programmed to seek patterns/symmetry. we also have the fault of confirmation bias in which we only see what we want to see and read into abstractions even if they are fleeting.

Question 21

what is an idol of the cave?

Answer 21

the cave refers to our personal upbringing, which includes our personal history, biological makeup, education etc. this idol refers to how we will always interpret the world through the lens of our cave (or our personal experience) so we may be biased.

Question 22

what is an idol of the marketplace? what is another term for the marketplace? what is this idea connected to?

Answer 22

the marketplace refers to the interaction between individuals in which improper word choice convolutes understanding. words can make things bigger than they are, they can create words for things that do not exist like ghosts. this is related to the prison house of language/wharf hypothesis in which says that language limits our thoughts. therefore, if our language is improper then our logic is also improper.

Question 23

what is an idol of the theatre?

Answer 23

an idol of the theatre refers to the false learning that the masses buy into without question. these ideas can be dogmas of philosophies, or traditions of thought that impose systems and make us believe that there is more order and regularity in our world than there actually is. as such, people create worlds like a theatre by naming them and telling us to believe them. bacon believes that we should INDUCT instead, in which we observe first before believing in a proposition.

Question 24

who is marx? what type of thinker is he?

Answer 24

marx is a theorist who is considered the father of communism and is the creator of conflict theory. he is a realist thinker because he believes the structure of capitalism affects an individual’s actions.

Question 25

what is meant by ‘history is materialistic’?

Answer 25

this is a marxist idea in which explains that history is not driven by values or religious beliefs, but by material factors. this is because humans must survive in order to make history, and to survive, we must extract resources. how we obtain these resources will shape the individual and our history.

Question 26

what helps us survive?

Answer 26

our ecological setting (will also determine HOW we survive), our collective effort and different tools/technologies

Question 27

what do the modes of production consist of? explain what is meant by those terms. what happens when the terms are misaligned?

Answer 27

the modes of production include the forces and relations. forces refer to the technology and natural resources available. relations refer to things like property relations. when the forces and relations are misaligned, conflict emerges and opens up a potential for a reworking of the entire economic system.

Question 28

what do ‘classes’ refer to? what are the two types of classes?

Answer 28

this refers to the relationship between the oppressor and the oppressed. they can be open or hidden.

Question 29

what does ‘extraction of a surplus’ refer to? how does it relate to society?

Answer 29

extraction of a surplus will occur when rulers of society extract a surplus from primary producers. HOW they extract this surplus is key to understanding the structure of society, and so this extraction is the DRIVING FORCE of societal organization.

Question 30

what does ‘base-superstructure’ refer to?

Answer 30

this refers to the organization of society. the base of society is the economy. the superstructure of the society is the political, legal, military etc. the superstructure is thus based on the economy.

Question 31

how do people develop thoughts?

Answer 31

how people think derives from their production system and not the other way around.

Question 32

what is the difference between false consciousness and class consciousness? how do the bourgeoise use ideology to their advantage?

Answer 32

false consciousness is the ideology enforced onto the proletariats by the ruling class that justifies the existing order and makes it seem natural instead of imposed. this keeps the masses passive. they are able to do this because dominant groups have the means to decide what is important and influence culture because they control the dominant material and mental force. class consciousness is the opposite of this and is the awakening of the proletariat in which they realize that they are being exploited.

Question 33

how does exploitation occur? how does it relate to classes?

Answer 33

exploitation is the defining relationship between classes and is conducted through extracting a surplus and through controlling the means of production / mental production. exploitation can be obvious or subtle.

Question 34

what are the six major modes of production?

Answer 34

these include primitive communalism, asiatic, socialism-communism, ancient slave, feudalism and capitalism.

Question 35

explain primitive communalism. what are some examples of primitive communalist societies?

Answer 35

primitive communalism was the first major mode of production in which the society was relatively egalitarian. this is because the society had shared resources and simple public technology that everyone had access to. because there were no trade secrets, no one could exploit one another. some examples are nomadism, pastoralism, and hunting/gathering

Question 36

explain asiatic mode of production.

Answer 36

this mode of production was founded near river valleys. the setting of river valleys was essential to this form because the lush valleys were appropriate for irrigation agriculture, canals and water reservoirs. agricultural development permitted settlement and prosperous crop yield. by settling down, societies were more stable and labour could be intensified and a surplus was created.

Question 37

what enabled the specialization of labour?

Answer 37

agriculture and stabilized societies permit the specialization of labour because a surplus enables that not all of the population must produce their own means of survival.

Question 38

what the two competing explanations for why powerful rule emerges out of the asiatic mode of production?

Answer 38

people argue that powerful rule emerges because of one of two reasons.

1. state emerges out of the functional necessity to organize the river valley. this is because the river organizes a structure that requires leadership to set guidelines and distribute surplus.
2. state emerges out of the need to protect the settlement from invaders. this is because the nomads and settled populations were in constant conflict.

Question 39

what does the socialism-communism mode of production suggest? what did it emerge out of?

Answer 39

this emerged out of the asiatic mode of production. it occurred after china and russia went through communist revolutions. it promotes the collective ownership of all means of production, not for profit, but for social needs. this eliminates classes so that politics are replaced with simple administration.

Question 40

explain the ancient slave mode of production. where did it occur? what did the settlements consist of and what did it lead to?

Answer 40

the ancient slave mode of production happened in around greece, italy and the mediterranean. it was founded near hilly and mountainous areas. the settlements consisted of small villages based on rainfall farming. this led to the start of private ownership because the members of the community would own their own land and would not have to cooperate with the community to generate their own sustenance. not much trade or surplus would be generated. these city states would fight amongst themselves and the defeated parties would become slaves. these slaves allowed other citizens to live freely because the production was done by the slaves. the citizens were as such, warriors, land-owners and self-governing.

Question 41

how did feudalism as a mode of production emerge? explain the feudal structure.

Answer 41

feudalism emerged as the slave labour influx began declining with the roman empire’s decline as well. the slaves then became peasants and landowners became lords. the peasants would be obliged to give their lords a cut of their crop in exchange for military protection.

Question 42

what did capitalism emerge out of?

Answer 42

feudalism was considered the womb of capitalism. capitalism emerged as the feudal structure began to break down. it is characterized by machine-based production, property-owning capitalists and wage labour.

Question 43

how does surplus extraction compare between asiatic, ancient slave and capitalist structures? what is the key difference between them?

Answer 43

during the asiatic mode of production, surplus was extracted through compulsary labour, taxes, bureaucracy and the coercion of the state. in ancient slave structure, the surplus was extracted by turning slaves (humans) into an instrument of production. in capitalism, the surplus is extracted through means of wage labour in which the worker is paid to make a commodity and the commodity is then sold for greater than the production value. capitalist extraction is less obvious, while asiatic and slave are explicit.

Question 44

what are the two types of capital and describe them.

Answer 44

1. variable capital: capital which has a value that can be changed like wages.
2. fixed capital: capital that has a fixed price. for example, raw material is fixed because you cannot get the money back after purchasing.

Question 45

what is the difference between a universal deductive scope and a context dependent and probabilitic scope

Answer 45

a universal deductive scope is used for natural science. it says, for every x, if y, then p. a context dependent and probabilistic scope is used for social science. it says, for most xs, in situation y, there is a tendency for p,