Test 1 Lecture & Chapter Material Flashcards
(108 cards)
1
Q
What is research?
A
Research is a carefully planned, systematic, and structured process for solving problems or answering questions (typically to develop new knoweledge)
1
Q
What is the scientific method?
A
A structured, orderly process for conducting a research study
2
Q
What are the steps of the scientific method?
A
- Understand the problem area
- Identify the research problem or question
- Formulate one or more hypotheses
- Plan the methods to test the hypotheses
- Collect the data
- Analyze the data with statistical tools
- Interpret and discuss the results
- Derive conclusions from the results (practical info, application)
3
Q
What are good sources for research problems and questions?
A
- Current research in the field
- Clinical situations observed in shadowing
- Discussions with healthcare professionals
- Professional trends (on websites or conference topics)
4
Q
What does a carefully formulated, well-structured question do?
A
- Helps build your literature search strategy
- Improves your literature search results
- Guides development of your research design, procedures, and analysis
5
Q
What are the criteria for a good research problem or question?
A
Feasible (have instruments needed, ethical, get enough participants, time restraint, enough literature)
Interesting
Novel (unique spin)
Ethical
Relevant (contribute to field, worth answering)
6
Q
How could you determine if your research question is novel and relevant?
A
Be familiar with research literature
7
Q
What is a strategy for structuring clinical research questions?
A
PICO
Patient/population/problem
Intervention
Comparison
Outcome
(T: time frame)
8
Q
What is a key point in research writing?
A
Write succinctly: as clearly and with as few words as possible
9
Q
What are tips for writing clearly and avoiding common writing errors?
A
- Do not personify objects
- Do not say a variable was “higher” without saying than what
- Do not use “this” without saying what it is
- Write sentences that can stand alone
- Be careful with “prove” consider suggest, demonstrates, and indicate
- Use parallelism when writing lists
- Use active voice
- Use strong verb instead of turning it into a noun (beware “of”)
10
Q
What are additional tips for research writing?
A
- Avoid using significant instead of important
- Data is plural (data were)
- Avoid bias in language
- Write person before disability (person with a mental illness)
- Do not label person by disability (person with an amputation/amputee)
- Use emotionally neutral words (not victim, afflicted, suffering)
- Emphasize abilities rather than limitations (confined to/uses a wheelchair)
11
Q
What are three characteristics of good research writing?
A
correct grammar/spelling rules, clear, and tells an interesting story
12
Q
What are some reasons to avoid wordiness in research writing?
A
Improved clarity allowing the reader to follow the story. The extra words do not add meaning.
13
Q
What is parallelism and why is it helpful?
A
Parallelism is wording listed phrases/clauses in the same way. It is helpful because it aids clarity and is easier to read and understand.
14
Q
Explain the difference between active and passive voices.
A
Passive: the subject is acted upon (vague)
Active: the subject is acting (direct and clear)
15
Q
What are the reasons to avoid using direct quotations in research writing?
A
Your own words decreases wordiness, is more straightforward, and does not break the flow of your writing therefore distracting the reader less.
16
Q
What are the two first steps in preparing to write a literature review?
A
First, identify the purpose of your literature review. Second, get a good grasp of the current research literature and understand your topic.
17
Q
Using your own words, define plagiarism
A
Plagiarism is when you use someone else’s work as if it were your own without giving due credit via citation.
18
Q
Why is paraphrasing preferable to always quoting directly from the source?
A
Paraphrasing is preferable because it prevents the reading becoming a disjointed series of other’s statements.
19
Q
Under what circumstance is it not necessary to cite the research literature in your own writing?
A
When the information is considered common knowledge.
20
Q
Should all outliers be discarded? Explain why or why not.
A
No, not all outliers should be discarded. This would be falsification and fabrication of data
They should be discarded when there has been a mistake in the data collection this is faulty data.
They should not be discarded when there is no mistake they simply do not follow your hypothesis.
21
Q
Explain the risk/benefit ratio.
A
The potential risks that the participants are exposed to by engaging in the study cannot outweigh the benefits they receive from the study.
22
Q
List at least five elements of informed consent.
A
- statement- research, purpose, duration, procedures & experimental procedures
- reasonable risks/discomfort
- reasonable benefits
- confidentiality of identifying records
- if more than minimal risk: explain compensation & treatment
- contact for questions, rights, & injuries
- voluntary - no penalty not participate/withdraw
- circumstances researcher discontinue participation w/o participant consent
- approx. number participants in study
23
Q
What is the difference between informed consent and informed assent?
A
Informed consent is for adults while informed assent is for children and therefore will need to be written in language that a child can understand and must be accompanied by an informed consent form for the child’s guardian
24
Why is it unethical to submit a research manuscript to more than one journal at the same time?
Because it disrespects the journal and the people putting time and effort into reviewing the submission.
Unacceptable publication practices. Academic disintegrity.
25
What is ethics?
The **systematic** study of what is morally good and evil and morally right and wrong in human conduct.
- Provides a set of standards for how to act in complex situations
- For Christians it goes beyond regulation to what is right to do
26
What are the three core ethical principles of the Belmont report?
1) Respect for Persons
2) Beneficence
3) Justice
**Each should have equal moral force**
27
What are the research applications and Biblical foundation for Respect for Persons?
- Emphasis on **respect** and **autonomy**
- Require obtain **informed consent**
- Respect participant's **privacy**
- 1 Peter 2:17 - show proper respect to everyone
28
What are the research applications and Biblical foundation for Beneficence?
- Requirement to **maximize possible benefits** and **minimize possible harm**
- Prohibit research with not a favorable **risk-benefit ratio**
- Galatians 6:9-10 do not grow weary of doing good, do good to everyone
29
What are the research applications and Biblical foundation for Justice?
- Require selection of participants equitably
- Require avoidance of exploitation of **vulnerable populations**
- Micah 6:8 do justly, love mercy & walk humbly with your God
30
What is an IRB?
Institutional Review Board
governing committee of an institution which evaluates the quality and safety of studies for approval before they can be conducted.
31
What established IRBs and why are they important?
Established under 45 CFR 46 (Code Federal Regulations)
Important means of protecting the rights of participants and ensuring sound, ethical research practices.
32
What are the levels of IRB review?
Exempt review
Expedited Review
Full Board Review
33
What is the risk level and examples of Exempt review? How long does it take? How many reviews it?
Low risk (less than minimal risk)
Examples: anonymous survey, educational research, research involving existing data that is publicly available
Time: 24-48 hours, 1 IRB board member
34
What is the risk level of expedited review? What are some examples? How long to review and how many board members are needed?
Risk level: Minimal risk to participants (those risks ordinarily encountered in daily life or a routine exam)
Examples: involving blood tests, MRIs, EKGs,
Time: 1-2 weeks, a few board members
35
What is the risk level of full board review? How long does this take?
More than minimal risk (physical/psychological/emotional)
or vulnerable (protected) populations
Time: 1-2 months
36
What are considered vulnerable populations?
Children, incarcerated, disabled, elderly, hierarchal organizations (military), pregnant, fetus, disadvantaged (socially, educationally, financially)
37
What should happen if an injury or adverse event occurs?
All adverse events must be submitted to the IRB even minor things
38
What is the DSMB and what does it do?
Data and Safety Monitoring Board
- carefully investigates and monitors participant safety and ethics of treatment
- it is independent of study and weighs in on decision making
39
What kind of review does this warrant?
A survey of athletic trainers regarding concussion management
Exempt review
40
What kind of review does this warrant?
A survey of high school athletes participating on soccer teams
A Full Board Review
(vulnerable populations)
41
What kind of review does this warrant?
A study involving the intentional deception of participants
Full Board Review
42
What kind of review does this warrant?
A study involving the collection of blood samples by finger stick
Expedited Review
43
What kind of review does this warrant?
A study incorporating a moderate intensity exercise program
Expedited
44
What kind of review does this warrant?
A study involving a maximal exercise test (VO2 max)
Full Board Review
45
What kind of review does this warrant?
A study involving testing of lower extremity muscle strength with an isokinetic dynamometer
Expedited
46
What kind of review does this warrant?
A study on the effects of vaping (without nicotine) on blood pressure.
Full Board Review
47
Who is the Chair of Cedarville's IRB?
Dr. Michael Sherr
48
What do Federal regulations require that the IRB committee membership include?
Non research member (non-scientist/community member), medical member, non-affiliated, men & women, varied professions, diverse backgrounds
49
What sections of the IRB application are unique in comparison to the typical sections in research proposals?
Risks and benefits to individual/society
Data security and privacy/confidentiality
50
What supporting documents would be included in the appendices of the application?
- Data collection forms
- Case report forms (CRFs)
- Study Tools (questionnaires, surveys, instructions, interview protocols)
- Detailed specimen processing and/or banking procedures
- Instructions for procedures/devices
- Literature searches
- Approval for research at locations outside of the university
51
What are at least five elements that should be included in consent form?
1) Statement that activities are related to research
2) Statement that participation is voluntary
3) Purpose of research
4) Expected duration of participation
5) Description of any reasonable foreseeable risks and/or discomforts
6) Explanation regarding extent of confidentiality
52
What is the language of the consent form?
- Plain language with simple sentence structure (8th grade level)
- Lay language: using terms that are understandable to participants
- Non-coercive manner
53
What consent forms are required when the participants are children < 18 years?
- Informed consent form signed by parent/guardian
- Assent form signed by child
54
What is anonymity?
The identity of individual participants is not known to the researchers. Since most research involving human participants requires signed consent, anonymity is not as common except in online surveys
55
What is privacy?
Pertains to people; protecting individual's right to control their personal information. Researchers protect against others accessing it.
56
What is confidentiality?
Pertains to data; managing participants' personally identifiable data to protect against disclosure of their responses and identities.
57
What methods do researchers use to maintain confidentiality?
Password-protected files
Research data stored in locked rooms and cabinets
Use codes instead of participants names (C1, T1)
Protecting the identity of individuals in presentations and publications
58
When a test or instrument is described as valid, what does that mean?
It accurately measures the variable that the researcher is studying.
59
Define criterion-based validity
Criterion-based validity is the determination that a measurement is valid by how it compares to the “gold standard” criteria, that is, the most accurate mode of measurement.
60
Provide an example from your field of a “gold standard” criterion that is used to compare to other measures.
An example of a “gold standard” criterion for the medical field is the measurement of blood pressure with a cuff that goes around the patient’s upper arm. The validity of a wrist blood pressure cuff would be compared to this.
61
How do the two forms of criterion-based validity, predictive and concurrent validity, differ?
predictive validity is based on the measurement’s ability to predict a correct measurement *in the future* while concurrent validity is based on a measurement’s accuracy with respect to the “gold standard” measurement methods.-- *the criterion standard around the same time*
62
What is a construct? How does it relate to construct validity?
A construct is a hypothetical idea or concept that cannot be directly measured. Construct validity is the ability of a test or instrument to accurately measure a construct.
63
A test is said to be reliable to the extent that it does what?
A test is reliable to the extent that it is able to produce the same results when measuring the same quantity.
64
How does reliability differ from validity?
It does not measure how accurately a test or instrument measures something but if it is able to get the same measurement if it is used to measure the same thing more than once: **consistency** and **repeatability**
65
Under what circumstances would you want to establish stability (also known as test-retest or intra-rater reliability)?
I would want to establish stability when using a test or instrument to measure a indicator of human health such as measuring heart rate. If the measurement does not have stability a provider will not be able to identify or treat an abnormality.
66
Describe how stability is measured using the typical approach of the test-retest method
Using the test-retest method stability is measured by using a test or instrument to measure a value on a certain day and then using the same test or instrument to measure the same value on another day. If the values are similar then the test or instrument is stable.
67
Describe how equivalence reliability is measured using the typical approach of the parallel (alternate) forms method
using two tests to measure the same value on two different occasions and then relating the values to determine if they are consistent.
68
If scores on a test are consistent when the test is repeated on the same day, what type of reliability is demonstrated?
Internal consistency or same day test-retest
69
If two evaluators demonstrate poor inter-observer (inter-rater) reliability during pilot testing prior to a larger study, what could be done to improve inter-rater reliability?
The evaluators should be trained and tested by an expert evaluator to improve their inter-rater reliability.
69
How is inter-rater reliability different from other measures of reliability?
It deals with human error rather than test or instrument error.
Inter-rater relatability: the ability of two researchers to get the same observation when viewing the same event.
70
What are the forms of validity?
Face validity - lowest form, expert opinion
Criterion-based Validity:
- Concurrent Validity - relate to similar tests
- Predictive Validity - able to predict future success/events
Content Validity
Construct Validity (harder to measure so have groups expected to get high values and groups expected to get low values ie foot and ankle ability)
71
What are the types of reliability?
Internal consistency - Same Day
Stability or Test-retest - Time between tests (ie wk)
Interrater Reliability
Equivalence or Alternate Forms Reliability (general used in educational research to determine if two tests provide same results)
72
What are statistical assessments of reliability and validity?
Correlation: ICC - Intraclass Correlation Coefficient
Person Product Moment Correlation (Person's r)
Both reported as coefficients on a scale from 0 to 1
73
Distinguish between clinician-based and patient-reported measures with regard to the type of measure and the typical information they provide.
Clinician-based: measures taken by health care providers whether directly observed or objectively measured.
-Tends to gather information about impairments (such as muscle weakness) rather than disability or quality of life (body comp, Heart rate, BMI)
Patient-Reported: outcomes in which patients self-report on their current health status: through standardized surveys
-Quality of life, symptoms, function, functional limitations, level of disability, and patient satisfaction
74
Give an example of the patient-reported outcome measure: global health status measure
A short form health survey for a general adult population (SF-36), Child Health Questionnaire
75
Give an example of the patient-reported outcome measure: condition-specific measure
The arthritis impact measurement scale (AIMS, AIMS2, and AIMS2-SF), Parkinson's Disease Quality of Life Scale
76
Give an example of the patient-reported outcome measure: region-specific measure
(region of the body) Disabilities of the Arm, Shoulder and Hand (DASH), Rowland Morris Low Back Pain Questionnaire
77
Give an example of the patient-reported outcome measure: dimension-specific measure
(specific to physical/emotional phenomenon ie pain, anxiety, depression) Visual Analog Scale (VAS) for pain, State trait anxiety inventory
78
What is the nominal level of measurement?
Lowest level: Categories by name or label
Example: Gender, Handedness
79
How is the ordinal level of measurement different from the nominal level? Give two examples of the ordinal level of measurement.
It is also non-numerical data but it can be put into an order (spacing may not be equal) **Ordered Ranking**
Examples: Likert Scales (attitudes, preferences), Manual muscle testing (Graded from 0-5)
80
How is the interval level of measurement different from the ordinal level? Give one example of the interval level of measurement.
Numeric measures with ordered rankings of equal distances/intervals between units of measurement
Example: Temperature scale
81
How is the ratio (continuous) level of measurement different from the interval level? Give two examples of the ratio (continuous) level of measurement.
Numeric measures with ordered rankings, equal spacing between adjacent numbers and **a true zero**
Examples: walking speed, height
82
Which level of measurement tends to provide more information and allow for more sophisticated statistical analyses than the other levels of measurement?
Ratio (continuous) measurement
83
What are the two types of measurement error and how do they effect the measure?
Observed (measured) score = true score +- measurement error
Random Error: Affect individual's score by chance - Effects measure reliability
Systematic Error: Fall in one direction and are likely due to a specific cause - Effects measures validity
84
Independent Variable:
Cause - variable that the researcher *manipulates*; the experimental treatment
85
Dependent Variable:
Effect - variable being measured to determine the effects of the independent variable
86
Extraneous Variable:
Factor other than the independent variable that **could** have an effect on the dependent variable
87
Confounding Variable:
Uncontrolled factor other than independent variable that **does** have an effect on the dependent variable
88
What does it mean for a **study** to have good validity?
the results will accurately reflect the effects of the independent variable(s) on the dependent variable(s) in the population of interest
89
Internal validity:
Extent to which the results of the study can be attributed to the independent variable(s) causing an effect or change in the dependent variable(s)
90
What must be attempted to have good internal validity?
Control all extraneous variables and having a strong research design
91
What are the threats to internal validity?
Maturation
Regression to the Mean
Selection Bias
Selection Maturation Interaction
Mortality
Instrumentation
Testing
History
+ Expectation
92
What is maturation?
Effects due to the passage of time (particularly children)
93
What is Regression to the mean?
Extreme scores tend to regress or cluster towards the mean on repeated testing
94
What is Selection Bias? What are steps to minimize this threat?
Bias in selecting/assigning participants to groups leading to differences between participants in each group at baseline
Minimize: Random assignments to group or match participants by certain factors
95
What is Selection Maturation Interaction?
Two groups seemed similar then groups naturally developed differently
96
What is Mortality? What are steps to minimize this threat?
When participants drop out of a study
Decrease discomfort, be clear on requirements
97
What is Instrumentation? What are steps to minimize this threat?
Instrument itself or those administering to instrument may be responsible for the outcome
Minimize: Calibrate instrument, practice using the instrument,
98
What is the testing threat to internal validity? What are steps to minimize this threat?
A practice or learning effect
Minimize: practice trials prior to testing, careful instructions/directions
99
What is the history threat to internal validity? What are steps to minimize this threat?
**external events** other than experimental treatment on study outcomes.
Minimize: Track effects (ie med changes) and ask participants to not begin ______, or to not change normal activity.
100
What is the expectancy threat to internal validity? What are the steps to minimize?
Expectancy of testers that one set of scores will be better than another.
Minimize: blind raters to who in what group
101
What is external validity?
The extent to which the results of a study can be **generalized** beyond the participants in the study sample to the general population.
102
How can we minimize the effects of reactive effects of experimental setting? What is the Hawthorne effect?
Hawthorne effect: improved performance because know being tested
Make study closely resemble real world (ecological validity)
103
How can we minimize the effects of the interaction of selection bias and experimental treatment?
(Sample being too narrow to generalize)
Ensure sample represents the population you want to generalize to
104
How can we minimize the effects of multiple treatment interference?
Can be very challenging considering the experiment design. Possibly separate the treatment more.
105
How can we minimize the effects of interaction effect of testing?
Avoid sharing pretest scores
106
What is the relation between internal and external validity?
Internal is more important (if it is not internally valid there is no reason to generalize)
There is a trade off between internal and external validity: If one is very high then the other is very low.
