Test #1 Review Flashcards

Question

Law of Succession

Answer 1

Correspondance among fossils and existing fauna and flora in spaces ***Evidence that new forms arise from old - Example #1 -- Australian fossils that are mammals are marsupials BUT asiam mammals are placentals

Answer 2

Fossils with mix of ancestral and novel traits -- ties groups of organisms over time Example -- Dinasours with feathers

Answer 3

That they are link between two things Transitional Fossils are NOT link between two things -- they are a branching point with a mix of traits - they are NOT direct loinks rather they are reprenstative of organisms that shared a common ancestor with a group near a branching point

Answer 4

IS NOT along a single tradectory -- NOT a straight line - People think that evolution is a single tradjectory -- that it is a direct progression within a single lineage over time --> NOT TRUE EVOLUTION -- is NOT a singloe lineage -- have branching diversification over time = need to contextulaize thorugh fossils

Answer 5

Charachteristics shared among orgnaisms because they were inherited from a common ancestory ***homolgous traits - Similarities = biologically meaningful NOT just coincidence -- they are because of a common ancestor

Answer 6

1. Homology

Answer 7

1. Vestigal traits 2. Atavism

Answer 8

A useless rudimentary version of a trait that is a function in related taxa - Reminent of traits in ancestors Example 1. Psudgogenes 2. Moden Whales 3. Appendix

Answer 9

Non-functional copies of coding genes Example -- Vitamen C synthesis in Primates

Answer 10

Reappearnce of ancestral traits in individuals - Provised evidence of homology in developmental pathways Example -- more than 2 nipples

Answer 11

Provide evidence of homology in developmental oathways -- mutation in development occurs that re-turns on a gene ***We can manipulate atavistic traits ourselves

Answer 12

Have homology in DNA and protein sequences ***have the same nesting sturcture in genetics as we do in traits --> Genologic nesting Have: 1. Orthologs 2. paralogs

Answer 13

Homolgous genes between species -- across species

Answer 14

Homlogous genes that diverged within a lineage ***genologics relate to each other within sme species - Genes related within ONE genome

Answer 15

1. pattern -- common Descent 2. Process -- mechanisms for how change arises over time --> process that generates diversity + process that connects diversity

Answer 16

1. Break through on pattern in Geology (led to pattern) 2. Breakthrough on pattern in biology (led to pattern) 3. Breakthrough on Process -- Malthus (led to process)

Answer 17

Was one of the first people to really think about teh mathamatic reality of human demography - He realized the remarkable power of unchecked population growth

Answer 18

His line of thought was critical fro Darwin + Wallace idea of natural selection as the mechanism of change - critical for coming up with MECHANISM

Answer 19

He realized the remarkable numerical power of unchecked population growth - Realized math potential in how reproduction oppertates that makes population growth unstable process Showed that the way popultions grow through time = leads to massive growth UNLESS it is in check

Answer 20

Means that something needs to hold population growth back -- without check the population is unstable and unsustainable

Answer 21

Population is increasing by constant rate per individual over time

Answer 22

Population increase by a constant amount over time ***this does not take into account the density of the population

Answer 23

Yt = Yo + XT --> JUST a linear equation T = time Overall -- Number of individuals X Time (because adding the same number of individuals each time no matter how big or small popultion is) - Each generation as set number (X) individuals added to the populton Example -- start with 1 person and add 2 people each generation 1 --> 3 --> 5 --> 7 --> 9 - Adding a fixed number each time ***Creates linear popultion growth (Always adding 2 individuals each time)

Answer 24

Yt = Yo X X^t -- for each generation t -> X offspring PER individual are added - Adding X offspring per individual (Y) Example -- start with 1 individual and the popultion grows at a rate of 2 individuals per generation 1 --> 2 --> 4 --> 8 --> 16 ***Much more rapid growth than arithmetic model

Answer 25

Most is exponental growth --> seen in almost all real popultions in nature - Seen by looking at reproduction

Answer 26

Exponential growth -- he notives this because we are NOT actually in an exponental model = means that there is some outside force that needs to be occuring

Answer 27

Mortaloty rates stop us from being in a state of catastrophe - Most individuals due before reproduction in order for popultions to stay stable - What prevents us = high level of background morlatlities to counterect popultions from rapid exponetial growth ***If most don't survive = more stable popultion

Answer 28

Variation in survival + reprduction

Answer 29

In natural popultions and humans (at the time) most individuals born into the popultion don't actually contribute to the next generation ***This view of a struggle for existance as intrinsic to all popultions = critical to the formation of Darwin;s ideas for a mechanism ***Because most of popultion isn't surviving --> means there is a variation in success = got Darwin + Wallace thinking

Answer 30

NS is simple due to 4 key postulates ***Each postulate is testable BUT tesing is not always easy 1. Populations are variable -- variation within populations 2. Traits are heretible 3. Variation in survivorship + reproductive sucess 4. Surivivorship + reproductive success vary as a function of traits

Answer 31

Populations differ in: 1. Morphology -- body shape + Size + Structure 2. Color (ex. Sgells of snails) 3. Physiology (Ex. Cold tolerance + metabolic variation) 4. behavior 5. Life history traits (Ex. Growth + development + number of offspring/gametes) 6. Immunity (Ex. being resistant to disease + pathogens) ***This is fairly intuative -- easy to see

Answer 32

1. Seen in human popultions -- Example is disribution of height ( 2. See genetic variation within popultion -- can see varaition in genome

Answer 33

Means that there is some connection between the phenotypes of one generation and the next ***Means that the offspring will look like the parents - Means that there a function in offspring that is in the parents

Answer 34

If we think in discrete generations -- what we mean is simply that the phenotypic distribuition of generation 2 is at least partially a function of the phenotypoic distribution of their parents

Answer 35

Heretabiloity = rather complex in practice ***A trait can have a clear genetic basis BUT not be heretible in a straight foward way at the popultion level Example -- Genetic dominence --> NOT negating heritability BUT comlicats it ***Means that the second generation looking like their parents is more complicated than "just looking the same" -- because of complex heritability patterns ***Traits can be heretible BUT not in a straight foward mechanism Example -- dominence --> complicates the 1:1 parent phenotype:offspring phenotype

Answer 36

Because heretibility is complicated

Answer 37

Because envirnmental factors affect traits -- the correltion between parents and offspring could be because of shared envirnment

Answer 38

***Very easy to see + testable ***This postulate is almost universally true in natural popultions

Answer 39

Investment optimized to the number of offspring -- faster replication = put more babies hoping to survive Example -- octopus

Answer 40

Investment optimized for care and or development of offspring - Produce fewer offspring BUT hope all surive --> add more resources to make sure they do Example -- elephants

Answer 41

postulate #4 -- survivorship + reproductive vary as a function of traits

Answer 42

Means that variation in survival is mathamatically connected to varaition in traits - means that rates of mortality and reproductive sucess are NOT uniformly distributed across the population in regard to certain phenotypes - Means that individuals with a certain phenotyoe value are more likley to survive + reproduce

Answer 43

In the image -- the trait is not affecting survival --> there is no diffrence in suvivorship between individuals with trait or without the trait - In this case natural selection is not active

Answer 44

probability of y does not vary as a function of x - everyone in the population has the same chance of surviving and reproducing, regardless of phenotype ***Means that natural selection is NOT active -- fails 4th postulate

Answer 45

Image = not uniform distirbution -- one trait value (individuals with certain traits is NOT surviving) BUT trait values in the center (individuals with different traits) are surviving ***have a difference between survivorship --> means that what trait you have matters for survival - there is a relationship between trait and survival - Trait = affects probability of survival - here posulate #4 is true

Answer 46

Look at 4 postulates: 1 -- Is the Gall size variable --> YES 2 -- Is the Gall size heritable --> YES - Hard to test3 -- Do all flies continue to the next generation -- is there variability in survivorship -- YES4 -- Is fly survival and reproduction uniformly distributed -- YES - Look at natural history***All 4 postulates are true = makes a relationship between probability of survival and size of gall = selection is occuring

Answer 47

Look at Natural history + look at Gall size ***record gall size and open them up to record the fate of the fly larvea (look at gall size vs. survival) Need to look at the parasotic insects that attck Gall flies 1. Beetle -- most get attacked by beetle --> WITH beetles there is some varaition in survival BUT mostly the same atttacj rate no matter the Gall size --> Means that the attack rate IS uniformly distributed = there is no difference in survival because of Gall size = means natural sleection is NOT occur - here survival rate is the same for all gall sizes 2. Wasp species --> The probability of getting attacked by a wasp increase as gall size decreases - at 25 nm you are almost immune to wasp --> Here there is a relationship between the trait and suvivorship = means that natural selection is occuring - Not uniformly distrubuted = having the trait affects your survivorship = NS is occruing

Answer 48

When the traits just most so far from to be the most fit (Ex. Gall size just ciontniuing to increase to be HUGE galls)

Answer 49

Individuals with the intermediate trait values have the highest fitness --> When teh intermediate trait is favored - Sleection won't go in one direction forver because the end point is not the best -- the best is something in the middle

Answer 50

The extent to which an individual contributes to future generations ***Need to think of it in terms of LIFETIME reproductive output

Answer 51

Survival is a neccessary compoennet of fitness BUT it is not enough for fitness Survival = only ONE part of it --> Need to survive to the point of reproduction -- survival is needed for fitness BUT also need reprouctive component (need repriductive sucess)

Answer 52

1. Survival 2. Reproduction

Answer 53

We can define many compennets of fitness (BUT they are organism soecific) Example for sexual organism: Surival --> Mating success --> Fecundity - Need to survive to the point of reproduction

Answer 54

Number of offspring you produce + can include parenting sucess - Includes parenting sucess IF offspring learn traits because then you arte keeping them alive - This is NOT inclduing genes of offspring traits ***Part of mom's fitness = how well she can protect her kids BUT her genes are not part of the kids fitness

Answer 55

Need to think of it in terms of LIFETIME reproductive output Have survival --> Mating success --> Fecundity --> GOES BACK to survival KEY for seeing if trait affects fitness = does it affect lifetime reproductive sucess ***Fitness = might not only have a single round of reproduction – if life historiues with multiple mating events

Answer 56

1. Junk DNA 2. Look at functional things that are homologous --> look at biochemical pathways - Often have homologous biochemical pathways --> same genes for enzymatic function because of homologty -Same mechanisms + pathways because inherited from a common ancestor Example -- Aquition of mitocondria - Many biochemical underpinning s of life were laid down a very very lomg time ago Molecular homology = extent way beyond closley relate mamales

Answer 57

If the 4 postulates are trie

Answer 58

Fitness is sometimes counterintuative -- the biggest + stringest + fastest + feircest isn't neccesarily the fittest Example -- Fitness of Gulls - Can look at it in two ways they can get kills 1. humans shooting the seagulls --> here there are no traits that would protect them - Whether they get hit = by chance --> there is no heritable traits that are under selections in this context 2. Using Trained raptors -- they chase the individual --> maybe there is a trait tat plays a role in whether they get eaten by a falcon - Can catagorize the dead bird based on muscle density (Have normal + More + less) -- most of the indiviudals were normal but had some that were higher and some that were lower RESULTS: 1. For the shooters -- the probability of survival is the same --> therte is a unifrom distrubtion across trait values -- survival is not impacted by muscle condition 2. For the falcones -- still have the same muscle distribution across popultion BUT now the probability of survival is NOT the same - poor muscle = less likley to survive (might be less agile + Slower) - normal msucle = higher survival than the other two - More musle = likley to get killed --> SHOWS that higher musclar physical fitness here DOES NOT EQUAL biologic fitness (Example of counterintuative to how we think of physical fitness) Here -- intermediate os the best = example of stable selection

Answer 59

1. individuals evolve -- REALITY = selection acts on individuals BUT individuals don't evolove2. Natural sleection can see into the future -- it cannot3. Selection adds more varaition -- REALITY is that selection acts on existing varaition in popultions4. Selection results in perfection -- NOT TRUE 5. Selection favors complexity -- NOT TRUE6. Being evolutionarily advancd -- subjective

Answer 60

Evolution = population level - Evolution = allele change from one generation to teh next --> change in allele frequencey in a popultion over time = populatoions evolve Selection = acts on individual -- fitness is based on individual

Answer 61

The crux of the difference between darwin vs. lamarsck was veiws on the mechnaism behind decent with modification - Lamarck = change in indivual that is passed down

Answer 62

Natural selection = CAN'T look into the future - NS = purley mathamatic process within parental generation Result = evolution lags a generation behind the selective pressures - NS is bloind to the future -- it can only repsind to the conditions in the cirrent generation at the time --> NOT prepparing for the next generation

Answer 63

Because NS can't look in the future = have a lag a generation behind the selective pressure - The popultion adapts to parents conditions -- the offspring might be in different conditions that they might not be well adpated for - Offspring are adapted for their parents enovrment = have lag - Evolution is a step behind if the conditions are changing rapidly Example -- Avgerage Gall size changes from year to year -- the Gall size is optimal from the past year = have lag - Size of galls in one generation = based on parent conditions

Answer 64

Selection acts on the existing varaition in a given popultion -- IT DOES NOT add new genetic varaition***Nothing about Natural selection makes varaition -- NS is not adding variation BUT that doesn't mean that novel traits are not evolving

Answer 65

1. reshuffling of genetic varaition 2. NS is in concert with two evolutionary forces (Mutation + Migration) -- Get novel varaition through mutation + Migration

Answer 66

NS takes varaition and psuhes the distrubution outside of bouns of parents varaition -- outside of phenotypic bounds of distrubution because of reshuffling ***Mutation and migration explains novel phenotypes even more so

Answer 67

Selection does NOT result in perfection ***Evolution is constrained -- evolution can't optimize all traits simultanously

Answer 68

Selection DOES NOT favor coplexity -- life has increased in complexity iver time BUT NOT because selection is favoring complexity

Answer 69

Increasing complexity arises from a passive undirected process - NS process is NOT in the direction of complexity (it is a directionless process) YET we have an increase in complexity - We evoloved in a completley random way -- go back and forth in both directions BUT we can't gp past the "wall"***In this way a directionless process leads to big increase in complextity iver time -- inevitable part of process***Get overall increase in complexity BUT without Natural selection actually favoring complexity because natural selection does not favor complexity***Still get pattern of increase in complexity in directionless process

Answer 70

VERY subjective -- humans think that they are the most advanced BUT that is completley subjective - Humans have not evoloved more than any other organisms --> all orgainsm today have been evoliving for the same amount of time

Answer 71

Is it one rare mutation or is it a build up of many small minor ones (Gradual vs.. SaltationNOW = we know that saltation is not how it works most of the time -- we know it is usally small changes over time

Answer 72

Jumping -- Idea that there is a mutation that just reframes whole organism and then acts quickly on it - People thought IF this is the way it works then mutations would cerate monsters - Question = was evolution dirven by catastrophic mutations that lead to "hopeful monsters"

Answer 73

Blending inheritance --> - People know that offspring look like parents BUT thought it was a blend of traits - Blending = not a mode of inheritance that allows evolution to persist Example -- Start with an all blue population → THEN have a spontaneous mutation that makes a red color → Say the red is favored → if blending of traits is true the offspring would have a mix of red and blue = would get purple offspring – some might say purple and some might mix more with blue = goes back towards blue - In this case the intial red gets dilluted over time (NOW you have a dilluted version of the mutations and never get the red again)***In blending you never get the instial red again -- the effect of the mutation doesn't matter because it is always diluted through time - If this was true NS wouldn't work

Answer 74

It does not work well with evolution by natural selection -- because over time you only get a dilluted version of the mutation (never get the original mutation again) - Keep losing the phenotype -- new variation goes away - Varaition goes away

Answer 75

Discrete vs. Continous traits -- if we have discrete genes how can we see continous traits (Such as height + cold tolerance) Question: How do we reconcile the discrete in Mednle's work with continous traits

Answer 76

Had two camps: 1. The Mendials 2. The Biomatricians -- measured things and found that very few things lined up with mednles work (they found that there were very few discerete traits + couldn't see significant Mednelian genetcics) Question: How do we reconcile the discrete in Mednle's work with continous traits

Answer 77

HE got lucky -- the traits that he happened to work with just happened to be discrete traits OVERALL -- people had issues with Mendle's work because his work failed to epxlain the heredity in continous traits

Answer 78

The reconcilliation between the Mendelian and Biometric ways of thinking with Darwinian Evolution IF people know Natural selection based on phenotypes VS. people know how heretibility works -- THEY needed a way to bridge the two Modern Synthesis = shifted towards genetic understanding of evolution and biologic varaition

Answer 79

Shift towards a genetic understandng of evolution and biologic variation - Modern Synthesis = need to think of evolution as genetics and allele frequency ***reframed evolution explictiley around popultion ***The new persective allowed us to refarme the postulates of Natural selection

Answer 80

Restated the four postulatesin explicitly gebetic terms MODERN synthesis = explains evoluton as a fundementally genetic process

Answer 81

Varaition among individuals results from mutations creating new alleles arsing and segregating in populations - Varaition had to do with varaition in alleles

Answer 82

The inheritance is the result of allelic variation passing from parents to offspring -

Answer 83

Through differential survival or reproductive sucess not all individuals contibute the same amount to the following generation

Answer 84

The probability of contributing to the next generation varies as a function of an individuals genotypes - Alleles at a locus affect if you survive and reproduce

Answer 85

Because evolution is the change in allele frequncies in popultion through time = need to establish the rules by which alleles are passed between generations We are building a null model --> rule of inheritance between phenotype are used to make null models in popultion genetics

Answer 86

The discrete functinonal unit of heredity -- refers to any variable geentic locus - Parent --> Offspirng -- is NOT diluted***What sticks around in generation of offspring

Answer 87

Specific location in the genome

Answer 88

Total herediatry information in an organism

Answer 89

The specific allelic composition of an individual at one or more loci Variant at a locus -- doesn't need to be a protein coding gene

Answer 90

Have one locus that duplicates and inserts somewhere else in the genome

Answer 91

Variant forms of a genetic locus Example -- can have. a C instead of a T OR can have an Indel OR can be varaint bases near each other than are inherited together ***Different alles could affect phenotype BUT can have two alles that still make teh same phenotype (diffreent sequnce but still leads to same phenotype)

Answer 92

When there are multiple variants

Answer 93

Specialized haploid cells resulting from meiosis (in sexually reproducing taxa)

Answer 94

Diploid --> Haploid (makes sperm/egg)

Answer 95

1. Law of Segregation 2. Law of independent assortment

Answer 96

Homologous chromsomes seperate during meiorsis so that ONLY one copy of each gene (one allele per locus) occurs in each gamete - Each gamete carries one copy into the gamete pool to form zygotes

Answer 97

Allelic varaition at different loci are passed to offspring independently - The probability of getting one allele at one loci is independent from the probability of getting a different allele at a another loci (alleles at different loci are inherited independently of each other) - Alleles of difefrent genes are inherited independently of each other ***ALL multi loci gametes possibilities are equally likley - The probabilities of alleles at different loci being inherited are indepent of each other

Answer 98

True when the loci are on different chromosomes + If the loci are far apart on the same chromosome

Answer 99

Swapping of alleles between homologous chromosomes -- Likley to happen a few times on each chromosome during meiosis END -- a new version (with a mix of maternal and paternal alleles) ends in gamete

Answer 100

They are independent if the likleyhood of a gamete with both loci is 25% BECAUSE if they are indepent then can multiply probability P(one allle at loci 1) = 0.5 (If have 1 M and 1 P = Probability of Either M or P is 1/2) P(one allle at loci 2) = 0.5 (If have 1 M and 1 P = Probability of Either M or P is 1/2) P(one allle at loci 1) X P(one allle at loci 2) = 0.25 ***If they are independent then the chance of getting both is 0.25 IF the frequency is NOT 0.25 then ther are NOT indepent (iof the freqincey is 1 or 0 then they are completley dependent)

Answer 101

1. During metaphase 2. During recombination

Answer 102

IF you have recombination then you are equally likley to get ALL combinations of alleles (MEANS that alleles at different loci are indepent of each other) BUT if recomnbination is not equally likley then you change the probability of getting combinations of alleles = Lose independent assortmement

Answer 103

1. Linkage

Answer 104

NO -- might have linakge = no recombination = no IA (THIS IS A TIME WHERE MEDNLES LAW BRAKS DOWN)

Answer 105

Any breakdown of independent assortment MEANS that allels at different loci are inherted together more than exopected by chance -- alleles at different loci are not being inherited independently of each other EXAMPLE -- if AB is more likley than ab (means that A and B are no longer inherited independently of each other)

Answer 106

Because the probability of inheriting alleles at different loci are indepent = can multiply the probability of getting the allels Ex. P(red allele at locus 2 on chromosome 1) = 0.5 P(organe allele on chrosmome 2) = 0.5 Probability of getting Red AND organe = 0.25 ***Because they are inherited independently of each other = can multiply them together

Answer 107

Visual representations of the probabilityes of getting a specific gamete -- visual representation of probability of genetic varaition from 2 individuals - Shows Mendle's Laws

Answer 108

Can see that there are 4 haploid gametes per individuals THEN look at how each indiviudlas gametes combine to pass to zygotes TWO LOCI genotype ration -- 9:3:3:1

Answer 109

You can see the frequencey of genotypes in the next generation form the gamete pool of the mating pair - Can se the gamete pool in the cross (result of the cross is the gamete pool) - can see the probability of producing certain phenotypes

Answer 110

The set of all copies of all gamete genotypes in a populations that could potentially contribute to subsequent generations ***Is the inside of the punnet square

Answer 111

Option 1 -- Look at square --> Can see 1/16 Option 2 -- There is only ONE way that aabb forms (if sperm has ab and egg has ab) P(ab sperm) = 0.25 - becasue have 4 possible sperm and all of them are equally likleyP(ab egg) = 0.25 - because have 4 possible egg and all of them are equally likley P(aabb) + 0.25 X 0.25 = 0.0625 = 1/16 ***Since P(ab sperm) is independent from P(ab egg) = the probability of both of them happening is the product of their independent probabilities

Answer 112

AND = X OR = +Independent statement (AND statement) = multiply Exclusive statement (OR statements) = add

Answer 113

1. Dominance 2. Epistasis

Answer 114

The phenotypic affects of one allele masks the phenotyopic affect of another allele at the same locus ***It is a type of interaction between allelic varaition at a locus

Answer 115

Is a complication -- because it blocks the contribution of one of the parents = interferes with heritability across generation (complicatioes the observation of the correlation between parent phenotyope and offspring phenotype) ***Breaks down the straightfoward relationship between the phenotype of the p[arent and the phenotye of the offspring

Answer 116

We need to stop thinkning that inheritance is compltley dominent or completely recessive -- there can be different degrees of dominence and recessive - Not everything is just domient and one is recessive - Many alleles have intermeduate levels of affects - Dominence itsself can take different forms

Answer 117

Dominance = interaction within one locus Epistasis = interaction between different loci

Answer 118

An effect of the interaction among multiple loci on a phenotype (or fitness) such that the joint affects differ from the sum of the loci completley - Means that you can't just add up all of the alleles and know the phenotype - Interaction among alleles at different loci - More than one gene affecting a trait ***Can't predict the effects of the genotype at one locus without knowing the genotype at another locus (If the answer for the phenotype is IT DEPENDS = know its epistasis) ***Common in nature

Answer 119

Epistasis is a constraint on evolution

Answer 120

Statistical interaction

Answer 121

IF looking at plant growth -- you are tesing the effect of temerature and of fertailizer Nitrogen level (Looking at low vs. high temp AND looking at Low N vs. High N) If the results = graph with two parrael lines = there is no interaction and there is an additive effectIf the results = graoh with intersectiong lines then there is an interaction and there is NO additive effect

Answer 122

Have two parallel lines (the slope of the lines are the same) = no interactions + have an additive affect - Means that the affect of one things (N fertlizer) is independnt of the increase of the other things (The affect of the N is indepent of the increase in temperature)In Example: No matter the temperture this is alwats an increase in height when there is an increase in temperature - No matter what temperture the N will always increase the height and no matter what N level the temperature will increase the height ALSO the temperature increases the height no matter the NItrogen level MEANS -- that there is an additive affect and they ARE indepent - The effect of temperture does not affect the affect of Nitrogen - As the temperture incerases plant height increases AND as N increases plant height increases BUT at either tempertures the plant height will incerases because of teh increases in N and at either N the plant height will increase because of temperture (Means that the affect of N is not dependnet on the N level = means they are indepentdent)

Answer 123

NO parralele -- they intersect (the slopes are different) = not additive - Since the slops are different there is an interaction Example --you can't predict the efefct of one. ofthe variuables without knwoing the state. ofteh other (The effect of teh temperature depends on the state of teh N -- The temperature oncerase plant height but ONLY in high N condition) - At high N the higher temperture decreases height But at low N the higher temperature increases height HERE = need to specify teh state of nitrogen -- if you asked how does tempertaure affect plant growth - you would need to say IT DEPENDS -- because the way that temperaure affects plant groiwth depends on teh state of NSince you say IT DEPENDS = you know you have an interaction (because the state. ofone affects teh other) - Effect of Temperature depends on teh state of N

Answer 124

When you can't predict one varaible without knowing the state of another Example -- can't know the effect of temperature without knowing the state of N

Answer 125

Scenrio: Have 3 Loci controlling plant height with 2 alleles for each loci HERE = if the alles have indepent affect (have no interaction) then you would know the genotype by adding up the effect of each genotype for each allele to get the plant height Example -- A1A1B1B1C1C1 → +1 + +1 + +4 + +4 + +6 + +6 = 22IF have NO epistasis = they are all indepent --> Then they have an additive affect (each alelle contributes seperatley to the overall height of the plant based on the genotype) Can know the height of the plant by just adding all fo the effects of each genotype

Answer 126

There is an additive eefct + there is no interactions -- the controbution of each allele is indepent of teh other genotypes - Indepent contribution of effects of alelle AABBCC -- AA is indepentdent from BB and CC - A will add an amount no matter the genotype of B (A1 will add + 1 NO matter what the genotype is at B – will add +1 if have B1 or have B2)

Answer 127

In plant example -- if we added a new locus D that is part of the hormone pathways - Locus D does not add height it just affects the hormone production - IF hace D = have no height in plant NOW -- when you change D to D- you have no stem at all and have no height (have no elongation -- stop ability for the plant to grow upwards --> means that since that since the plant is not growing upwards at all so the efefcts. ofthe other allleles. donot matter (no matter what the other alleles are there will be no height -- whther is A1 or A2 it would be the same height because there woudl be no height) MEANS -- the other Loci now depend on the state of D (Now if you asked a question of how the height would change if we swicth B1 to B2 you could have to say IT DEPENDS -- because now it depends on the state of D) - Since IT DEPEDSN = means that ther us an interaction = means that there is epistasis

Answer 128

Question = can you predct the affect. ofan allele based ONLY on that allele itself IF the effect of the allele depends on the state of another of another allele = then you have episatsis - If "it depends" = means that there is an interactuon = you have epistasius

Answer 129

ONce add in D = we can't prediect the effect of the other alleles without knwoing the stats of D - If D+ then they will hadd height BUT if D- then they will not change teh height because there will be no height (Since it depends = have epsistasis) INteraction = epistasis

Answer 130

The measurable properties of an organism manifested throughout its life - Any trait that you can measureIncludes: Morphologocal + Phsyicological + biochemical + behavioral

Answer 131

1. Genetic variation 2. Environmental variation 3. Gene X Envirnment interaction

Answer 132

Because we know someone's genotype we can predict the phenotype MEANS that phenotypic differences among individuals are epxlained by allelic differences (explained by genotypic differents)

Answer 133

Phenotypic differences among individuals are explained by difefrences in conditions - Some envirnmnetal variable explains the differences in phenotypes - Phenotypic differences exist due to differences in the conditions experinced by organisms - Here -- organisms can have the same genes BUT different phenotypes

Answer 134

Daphnia -- organism that reproduces by cloning (same genotype) IF they are exposed to different environments THEN they look different - Of they are reared around predators = they have a point and hard outside - HERE -- have different phenotyopes based on predator cues (based on envirnmental cues) ***They have the same gnotype BUT have different phenotyoes based on the envirnment

Answer 135

Changes in the phenotype exhibited by the same genotype due to envirnmental differences - Phenotype can be shaped by the envirnmnet BUT the genotype stays the same - Envirnmental variation effects phenotype - Envirnmental determines the phenotype

Answer 136

Envirnmental varaition

Answer 137

Discerete phenotypic varaition arising from the same genotype in different envirnments (SAME GENOTYPE) - Type of phenotypic plasticity - Get catagorical varaition (one phenotype or the other) because of of different envirnments Example -- Daphnia (get either with body armore OR without -- two discrete values)

Answer 138

Means that the phenotypic differences that are caused by alleleic differences depends on. aparticular condition and vica versa (the differences cause my envirnment depends on a particular genotype) - Effect of the allele depends on the envirnment or effct of envirnment depends on allele - Phenotypic differences are driven by differnt intercations between alelleic varaitions and envirnmnetal conditions - Genes have different effects in different envirnmnets MEANS we don't know the contribution of an allele to the phenotype without knowing the envirnment

Answer 139

One thing depends on the other -- effect of the genotype depends on envirnmnet and effect of envirnment depends on genotypeIS A statistical interaction -- can't predict the effect of the allele without knowing the envirnment

Answer 140

The mathematical relationship between environmental variable and the values at the phenotypic plastic trait (relationship between envirnment and phenotype)

Answer 141

IMAGE -- the two genotypes have different reaction norms = know that it is GXE because the effect of the envirnment depends on the genotyoe that you have - The two lines intersect = means that they are not paraellel = means that the relatsionship between the envirnment and the phenotype depends on the genotype In example -- the slopes of the lines are different = they intersect --> we know that the relationship between phenotype and envirnment for one genotype is diferent form the other = know that the relstionship between the phenotype and envirnment depends on the genotype - The envirnment afefcts each genotype differentlye = the affect of the envirnment depends on the genotype (DEPENDS = GXE) ***GXE because the two genotypes have different reaction norms

Answer 142

In GXE = have different genotypes have different reaction norms - The different reaction norms = evidence for GXE

Answer 143

Reaction norms = often the target of NS - NS = acts on the reaction norm itself --> Act on the same enivrnments interaction with the phenotype - Somtimes this can give the apperance of Lamarkian Phenomanon -- because the change in evnirnment causes change in phenotype that is then pased down = seems genetic

Answer 144

By acting on the reaction norm

Answer 145

Mandica -- Black worms can turn green after a heat shock treatment - There are differences in the degrees of response of the catipillars = inidcate different reaction norms (because they each have have different leevls in plasticity -- they turn different colors) - The amount that temperature affects phenotype varies - Have different phenotypic effects (some stay black + some go a little green and some go very green) --> IN ALL of the same temperatures they all they all respond differentley -- they all trun different colors) THEY ALL have different reaction norms because they all have different responses to the envirnment Researchers made: 1. A high plastcity line 2. A control line 3. A low plasticty line (Stay black) Results: The low plasticity line lost ability to turn green and the high plasticity line increased in plasticity HOW -- selection is acting on the reaction norm itself - Low plsticity line = ends with lower RN - High plasticity = ends with a higher reaction norm (means that it takes less temperature change in color)***By selecting for envirnment determined traits = evolove because the reaction norm is chnaging OVERALL -- a selection experimnet on this GXE varaition not only chnages the phenotype but it does so by altering the reaction norm

Answer 146

The shape and the position can be under selection -- that selection can change the shape and the slope Selection = can change the shape -- can go from being contibous to having only two options (from more gently sloping line to being either the value at the top or the bottom)

Answer 147

Selection - can change the shape -- can going from continous to only two options (from gently sloping tp being either value) ***Goes from continuous phenotypic plasticity to polyphenism – change the phenotypic outcome (because still phenotypic plasticity because change in phenotype based on environment but genotype isn;t change BUT only now have two phenotyoez

Answer 148

The evolution of a fixed trait from phenotypic plastic varaition ***Was an envirnmental trait and is now hardwired

Answer 149

To make it genetically engrained = changed by chnaging the sensity needed to be plastic

Answer 150

Occurs if you lower the limit of envirnmental condition needed - If you make it so that you have the trait at. avery low limit of envirnmental condition then you will have the trait in all envirnmnets -- in the end you have a varaible trait going to a genetically fixed traitSINCE -- lowered the limit and selection acted on the reaction norm -- by pushing the infelction point of the reaction norm below the threshold -- the trait will now appear under any set of realistic conditions

Answer 151

Mutations that make a new allele at a locus in that gene

Answer 152

New variations that generate new loci - Large scale or change in genome structure

Answer 153

Change in one nucleotide to another Like a C → T – now have an A-T BP instead of a C-G BP - Could change a codon = can change AA - Sequence length stays the same Worse case = 1 AA change

Answer 154

Worse Case SNP = change in 1 AAWorse canse Indel = screw up really bad

Answer 155

Small inseration and deletions of base pairs - Chnage in length of sequnce

Answer 156

Most mutations that we are concerned with are mutations that are. inthe germ line (not somatic) BECAUSE -- somatic mutations are not inherited

Answer 157

Debate = was debated for a while Many say exons + some say regulatory regions (because then you might not make the protein) ANSWER: ALL OF THEM ARE IMPOORTANT FOR EVOLUTION Important alterations on small scale mutations can have an important effect

Answer 158

1. Unequal crossover (Meiotic error)2. retroposition

Answer 159

Transcribed RNA gets picked up and gets reverse transcribed to DNA and integrated into the genome***Can be inserted into the genome through DNA repair mechanisms

Answer 160

Crosover occurs so that you have 2 copies of a locus in one cell and no copies of that locus in teh other cell NOW -- get a longer and a shorter part ***Can cause phenotype -- if the longer chromsome stays THEN new offspring might have extra copies of loci = the new loci can have new functions

Answer 161

Can cause phenotype -- if the longer chromsome stays THEN new offspring might have extra copies of loci = the new loci can have new functions

Answer 162

1. Inversions 2. Fissions/fussions ***Occur often

Answer 163

Change in the order of genes due to double stranded breaks and misaligned repairs -- chang in the order of genes on chromsome

Answer 164

Inversions = important for recombination -- chromsomes no longer can have recombinations - Protects the region from recombinations -- Makes genes linked --> if the genes are linked then Natural selection acts on them more. =acts on inversions more

Answer 165

natural selection = acts on linked inversions -- natural selection. =acts faster than individual genes inherited independeltley NS = acts faster on linked genes than genes than genes that are inherited independetley. =NS acts on the inversion event because the genes are linked ***Inversions might play a strong role in evolutionary processes by keeping sets of genes together

Answer 166

Drives Karyotype diversity (Haploid chrsomosome counts) - Number of chromsomes (haploid)

Answer 167

1 Chromosome --> 2 chromosomes

Answer 168

2 chromosomes --> 1 chrossome

Answer 169

Typically due to meitotic erros Very common in some groups of organims (Particulaly plants) May play a role in speciation and adaptation May have been very important in early history of life -- providing fodder for protein diveristy

Answer 170

1. May play a role in speciation (plants) 2. May have been very important in early history of life -- providing a fodder for protein diveristy - Likley important for the biochemical paths that we have -- the extra set of chromsomes due to duplication can mutate and evolve and take on new forms = important for developing complexity in Eukaryotic organisms - Think it was important for developinhg the complexity of Eukaryotic organisms

Answer 171

Occur pretty often -- muttaions occuring in the germ line occur all of the time --> the DNA of the parents is different than the DNA of teh offspring Because occur pretty often the fact that the DNA of the parents is almost always different that the DNA of the offspring is almost always true ***We can measure mutations rates by tracking lines of model organisms in the lab

Answer 172

The chance of a mutation at a single locus is low BUT if you scale that up to account for all of the loci in a genome get a liklihood of having of 30 mutations The chance of a mutations at a singel nucleotide is low but when you scale the chance of a mutation up to genome level = epxevct to see around 30 mutations in the genome levelIMAGE -- shows mutations rates for a single locus

Answer 173

Mutation rates are very variable BOTh acrosses organisms + within organisms but between regions of the genome

Answer 174

The majority are either bad or neutral (no effect on fitness) BUT some can imporve fitness - beneficiual miutations are rare but do occur SEEN IN bacteria + Yeast - Studies look at the fitness of clonal indivioduals vs. the fitness of the ancestral strain - Most common = nuetral - In the chart most of the mutations. are<1.0 -- means that they lower fitness or at 1.0 which means that they are neutral - The chart also shows that some of the mutatinos were lethal (biggest decrease in fitness) - YEAST = mostly nuetral with some distribution of deleterious + have lethal - BUT in both organisms there are sine numbers >1.0 -- means that there is. anincrease in fitness = have 3-4 mutations that impirved fitness over ancestral

Answer 175

The mixture of bad BUT also some good mutations still provides enough fodder for NS

Answer 176

IF mutation just acted by itself (doing a mutation accumulation experiment) -- allow mutations to build up but take selection out of the picture by babying the warms as much as possible -- the warms are not completing at all RESULTS -- After genertaions the fitness. ofthis line decreases A LOT - When there is No natural selection (because took out any competition) + have a lot of mutations the fitness decreases --> the new mutations are deleterious -- as they accumilate theu hurt fitness IF intriduce natural selection (increase NS -- Increase competition) --> The Naturak selection can sort through allelic varaition - NS = can pick out the good mutations and take out. thebad mutations and return the popultion to orginal fitness - returns very quickly to normal fitness OVERALL -- is NS is not acting then mutations lead to decrease in fitness BUT when NS is restored it can act efficiently and restore the fitness alsmot instantaneously

Answer 177

In the absence of selection, deleterious mutations accumulate and drive fitness down Return of selection: rapidly sort out the good from thebad and fitness bounces back

Answer 178

The mathematical and empirical study of allelic variationwithin and among populations, including the dynamics of changes in allelic variation through time***All about understanding allele frequcney

Answer 179

Looking at something in terms of the proportion Looking at the counts relative to the whole - Looking at the proportion of varaition for a locus represented by as ingle allele Count of an allele/WHOLE (count of all alleles in population)

Answer 180

Work the same way as phenotype Frequency -- need to count up all of the allele in question and determine the proportion it makes up of all of the copies of that locus in the population - Look at allle and determine the proportion that they make up of all of the alleles

Answer 181

Allle count is NOT the genotype frequincey becasue each genotype has two alelles

Answer 182

of homozygous Indv + 1/2(# of heterozygous Invd)/Total number of individuals - Use 1/2 because only 1/2 of the heterozygous are each of the alleles (1/2 A and 1/2 a)Instead of counting alleles we can count genotyoes and adjust accordingly OR You can work directley with genotype frequnceies ***Genotype frequncies also all have to sum to 1.0 Freq A = Freq of AA + 1/(Freq of Aa) -- here you don't divide by total individuals becvaue you ate already using frequnceies - By dealing with genotype frequencies we have already accounted for the proportion of the whole = no need to divide anymore

Answer 183

Freq A = FreqAA + 1/2Freq of Aa Example AA --> 47/147 = 0.314Aa -> 88/147 = 0.599aa --> 12/147 = 0.082Freq A = 0.314 + 1/(0.599) = 0.619 ***Don't divide by anything here because they are already in frequcneies

Answer 184

Equals 1.0

Answer 185

of indioviual with genotype/ Total # of individuals ***No need to double here (Just number/total) Ex. #AA/Total # of individuklas

Answer 186

Freq H+ = 0.8 Freq H- = 0.2Genotype Freq: HH = 0.63Hh = 0.34 hh = 0.03 Freq H+ = Freq of HH + 1/2 Freq of Hh0.63 + 1/2(0.34) = 0.8 Freq of h = 1.0 - 0.8 = 0.2

Answer 187

A group of interbreeding individuals and their offspring (for sexually reproducing organisms) - Hard to define More generally: Perhaps more generally: a group of conspecific organisms occupying a more or less well defined geographic area that exhibit reproductive continuity from generation to generation

Answer 188

We model reproductive continuity --> potential for allle frequncey to change from one generation to the next (parent genotype to offspring genotype without the input from other groups)

Answer 189

1 -- ADults --> Sdults make gametes -- make up the gene pool (2) --> Gametes form the gene pool combine to make zygotes (3) --> Zygotes mature to offspring (these new offspring make up. thepopulation) (4) --> Offspring become adults (1) 1. Parental genertaion 2. Gametes pool derived from the parental generation 3. Combination of gametes from pool of zygotes 4. Offspring generation

Answer 190

1 -- Start with our parental popultions --> genotype the indoviuals -- get the genotype frequencies for parental generation GET Parents popultion genotype frequencey Example: AA =0.36Aa = 0.48 aa = 0.16 2 - Generate the gamete pool -- based on. theintial parental genotypes - Get the frequencey of the alleles in the gamete pool - Assuming Mendle's kaws = take a diploid genotype and make all of the possible gametes Frequncey of gametes = Frequncey of alleles on the parental generationFreq A = Freq AA + 1/2(Freq of Aa) = 0.36 + 1/2(0.24) = 0.6 Freq A = 0.6Frq a = 0.4Freq in gametes = 0.6 and 0.4 - means that 60% of sperm is A and 40% of sperm. is a and 60% of eggs are A and 40% of eggs are aCan call Freq of A "p"; Frequncey of a "q" P + q = 1.0 (Freq of A + Freq of a) = 1.0q = 1 - 0.4 --> q = 0.4 NOW = we know that the gamete pool is 60% A and 40% a 3 -- Geenrate Zygotes - use basic probability -- choosing one sperm and one egg at random from the gamete pool - Porbability of getting a gamete with a particular allele is simply equal to the allele frequncey - probability of choosing a gamete with A = freq of Ain gemete pool P(A sperm) = p = 0.6P( a sperm) = q = 0.4P(A egg) = p = = 0.6P(a Egg) = q = 0.4P(A sperm) And P(A egg) = 0.6 X 0.6 = 0.35 --> P(AA) = 0.36 SAME AS p X p = 0.36 P(aa) = 0.4 X 0.4 = 0.16 q X q = 0.16 P(Aa) = P(A sperm) AND P(a Egg) OR P(a sperm) AND P(A Egg) - There. aretwo ways that this can happen = need to account for both P(Aa) = [0.6 X 0.4] + [0.4 X 0.6] = 2[0.4 X 0.6] = 0.48 [p X q] + [q X p] 4 -- Assuming that all of the zygotes survive and develope -- the genotype frequncies of. tehnew generation are AA = 0.36 Aa = 0.48 aa = 0.16NOTICE: NO CHANGE -- the same frequncey as the parental generation - Genotype -> gamete frequncey --> Probability events in teh gamete pool --> zygoites --> if all of the zygotes surivive to be offspring = the genotyp[e frequnceies don't chnage in the offspring

Answer 191

Get the gamete pool from the parental genotypes - Want the alleles frequncey on the gamete pool -- this is equal to teh allele frequncey in parental generation END -- frequencey of gametes = frequncey of alleles in the parental generation

Answer 192

The allele frequncey of the alelle that we are focused on ***Could be an allele that doesn't even make a phenotype - Doesn't say anything about dominant vs. recessive***In an idelaized biallelec system = we can call the frequncey of the other allele "q"

Answer 193

Use Basic probability – choosing one sperm and one egg at random from the gamete pool - probability of choosing a gamete with A = freq of A in gemete pool Pr obability of getting a gamete with a particular allele is simply equal to the allele frequncey in gamete pool

Answer 194

Started -- punnet square of two individuals (just looked at male and female) - Here -- the frequency of each of the gametes is 50% (50% chnace they will give A and 50% chance they will give a) - HERE -- P and Q = 50% - If only two inidviuals then p and q = 50% THEN -- just change cross to have different frequency of p and q to account for all indivdiuals in the population (NOW just chnaging the cross to have different requencey of p and q) NOW -- instead of a gamete pool of two indoviduals -- gamete pool is of the entire idealized popultion - Have new p. and q values to account for allele frequencey. inthe gamete poolTHEN -- can use p and q in. thepunnet square --> The frequncey of each genotype in each square is equal to the pdorct of the gamate (allele) frequencies - Have AA = p X P - Have aa = q X q - Have Aa = p Xq OR q X P = 2pq END -- know that p^2 + q^2 + 2pq = accounts for all indovoduals in the popultions = p^2 + 2pq + q^2 = 1.0

Answer 195

P^2 + 2pq + q^2 = 1.0 - Sum need to always equal 1.0 -- accounts for all genotypes - Looks at allele frequencey and the porbability of an allele in the gamete pool CAN BE SEEN IN PUNNET SQUARE -- look at image - They ALL have to equal the whole rectangle = no matter what they always add up to 1

Answer 196

Look if the genotype frequnceies matches the allele frequncies NO MATTER WHAT -- the sum of genotype frequncies should still add to 1

Answer 197

You can make the punnet square with the allele frequncey of each allele -- include p and q THEN you can see that: Freq AA -- PXP = p^2 Freq Aa -- P X q OR Q X P = 2PQFreq aa = q X q ***Can do frequnceies in this way because the frequncie of AA = Freq of A AND the Freq of A = P X P ALL OF THESE NEED TO ACCOUNT FOR GENOTYPES OF ALL INDIVUDALS IN POPULTIONS = ALL ADD UP TO 1 GET EQUATION -- P^2 + 2pq + q^2 = 1.0

Answer 198

1. No selection 2. No mutation 3. No migration (in or out) 4. Infinate popultion size 5. Mating choice occurs at randomViolating 1-4 = changes allele frequncies = generates evolution

Answer 199

Important assumtion that genetic drift is based on SMALLER populations = have inevitability of chnage in allele frequency ***Makes this an idealized model

Answer 200

Essentially unequal rate. ofsurvival and reproductive success acriss genotypes

Answer 201

Generalized fitness value

Answer 202

We will just asisgn fitness value to genotypes based on different survival - Looking at survival rates and assign fitness WE look at juvinile to adult hood part of life cycle (differences in survival to reproduction)

Answer 203

Example -- we have moved mice to. a location were coat color matters Moved 1000 mice from a population in HW to a new location We are looking to see if coat color is under selection (looking at ciat color) Total = have 1000 mice --> tracking their survival in nature - Intital population is in H-W (gene frequenceies match expenctations --> NOW putting mice in new envirnment)Here AA = 0.36Aa = 0.48 aa = 0.16 THEN before reproduction a number of mice are eatenAA Survivnng = 288 Aa Surviving. =288aa Suriving = 64OVERALL -- need to compare the observed survival rate vs. the expected survival rate (expected = that each have equal survival rates) Steps: 1. Need to calculate the survival rate for each geneotype - Ratio of mice survivors in each genotype vs. the expected number of survival if Survival is uniform2. Need to calulatue NULL -- that survival rate is uniform - To find -- take total suvivors in population/ total in populations 288 + 288 + 64 = 640 --> 640/1000P(survival) = 0.64 -- if it is unifrmTHEN need. to find teh expected NUmber of survivors per genotypes (if survival rate is equal) Expected number = Number of genotype X P(survival in unofrm) - Exoect 64% survival in each genotype IF survival is uniform (expect 64% of each genotype to survive to reproduction) 0.64 X 360 = 230.4 -- expected numbver of survivors 0.64 X 480 = 307.20.64 X 160 = 102.4NOW have expected survivors 3. Comprare observed vs. Expected survicors AA -- 288/230.4 = 1.25 Aa -- 288/307.2 = 0.937564/102/4 = 0.625THESE numbers = represent the deviation form uniform suvrival for each genotype --> Theyre propeortional over or under the representation of that genotypoes in the next geenration = they are fitness - They show the deveioation from unoform surivale (If uniform survivale is 1 then AA has slightly higher survival and Aa has slightly lower survival) THIS GIVES ABSOLUTE FITNESS BUT we want theor relationships to each other -->. wecan rescale them (we don't want to use the raw fitnes svalue we want them on a relationship scale-- want relative fitness) THEN TO GET RELATIVE FITNESS -- We can do this by simply setting the value of the highestfitness genotype to 1 and dividing the others by that value to adjust them accordinglyMke your highest values = 1 and dvide. therest by that value Here : 1.25 is highest --> 1.25/1.25 = 10.9375/1.25 = 0.750.625/1.25 = 0.5 NOW have relative fitness

Answer 204

\Need to compare expected to observed survival

Answer 205

Null = that survival rate is uniform Do total amont of surivvors in populations (regardless of genotypes)/Total populations

Answer 206

If over 1 = means that that genotype is slightly more liley to survive If less than. 1= means that genotypes is lsightly less likley tp survive Ex. 0.625 -- means thaty you have a 0.625 chnace. ofsurvival relative top everyone else in the same popultion

Answer 207

You need =fitness BUT you also need to think about it in the context of teh current popultion -- need to know the starting point of the popultion for alelleic variation - The effect of natural selection doesn’t justdepend on these values alone, it depends onthe context of the allelic variation in thepopulation tooNEED 1. Relative fitness 2. Need starting alelelic frequncey THEn you need to know the avergage fitness. ofthe populations as a whole -- how high or below avergae fitness are you if you are carrying a certain phenotype

Answer 208

Depends on the genotype fitness values and. the current allele frequnceies in the popularions NEED -- to calculate for avergage fitness across the popultions -- the avergae fitness takes both alelleic frequencey and fitness into account What alleles will do depends on Avergage fitness (w/)

Answer 209

NEED: 1. Avergage fitness 2. Starting allele frequnceies Using w/ and relative fitness and allele frequncey = can calulate what alleles frequncey will be from. onegeneration to the next LOOK AT THE CHANGE in allelE FREQUNCEYdP = p/w/ X [(PXwAA) + (q X wAa) - w/]Example -- (0.6 X1) -- means that you have a fitness of 1 60% of the time -- are above w/ 60% of the time (0.4 X 0.75) -- means that you have a fitness of 0.74 40% of the time IF dp = 0.075 -- tell us that teh allele frequncey will be slightly higher in the next generation p' (p in next generation) = 0.675 -- alelle frequncey in the next generation

Answer 210

[(PXwAA) + (q X wAa) - w/] -- average fitness effect of a gamete carrying allele A – that can combine at random with either A or a gametes in the population at their given frequenciesA gamete can either combine with another A -- then get AA OR can combine with a and get Aa --> depedning on which happens have diffrent affects on fitness (if AA -- has certain fitness + if Aa has different fitness then subtrcat that from the avergae fitness) - If you have A in the gamete pool = can form zygote with. Aor a -- look. atthe probability that you will get AA or Aa -- done by multiplying by. p and q THEN once you have the expected amount of AA or Aa you can see if on avergaege You will be above or below w/ by subtracting from w/ - SHows tha orbability of A combining with A and the fitness that the resulting zygote would have WHETHER AN ELLE GOES UP OR DOWN IS BASED ON AVERAGE EXCESS

Answer 211

The lowest fitness allele should go down because its the lowest fitness Highest fitness alelle should go up

Answer 212

Sometimes it is easier to keep track of the strength of selection directley rather than relative fitness - Look at selection directley s = 0 -- no sleection aganist it s (selection coefficient) = 1 - Relative fitness

Answer 213

Preidcting the outcome of NS LOOKING at mean popultion fitness vs. allele frequncey (w/ as a function of alle frequcey for a particular set of fitness values)

Answer 214

Efefct of NS = always to push the graoh uphill - Want the max w/ based on ale;les in popultion -- NS push popultion uphill - w/ will increase uphill as much. aspossible - Shows how adaptation will occur over adapative Topograohy NS will always push the population uphill along the topography Example (from the calculations earlier) If have p = 0.6 --> w/ = 0.8 -- in teh next geenration when p = 0.675 w/ becaomes 0.8375 (Shows that NS is pushing AT uphill)

Answer 215

Adaptive topograohy USE the graogs to define an adaptive topography for the popultion

Answer 216

Steepness of the slope determines. thestrenbgth of affect of Anatural selection Lower slope = lower investment (Making less of a change when putting. ineffort) Steeper slope = small chnage in P leads to bigger chnage in w/ (higher investment)

Answer 217

Natural Selection can work on any fitness differential in the absence of other evolutionary forces

Answer 218

Rate of change is a function of the strength of selection - Weaker selection = takes long STILL IN DIRECTIONAL SELECTION IT WILL END WITH FIXATING FOR HIGHER FITNESS ALLELE

Answer 219

The rate of chnage is the fatstest when the genetic varaition in fitness is highest (P=0.5) - Place where the rate of evolution (rate of alelle frequcney change) is fatstest = in the steepest part of teh curve -- always at the same place -- alwats when p=0.5 IMAGE -- even though all differentc urves (different fitness differential) -- the rate of chnage is fasttest when P=0.5

Answer 220

Change in popultion fitness is proportional to varaition in fitness - Fastest rate of chnage in fitness from one generation to the next when variation is highest - More varaition = more NS can sort through the variation = fatser evolution

Answer 221

NS is determinanistic when acting by itself - If we know the starting point = we can know the end + all of the intermeduary steps - If we know what the conditions are we know what the outcomes will be - NS selection by itself is driven by straight foward mathematics towards a predictable outcome

Answer 222

The end point is still the same (for domiannet vs. recssive) -- still goong to fixation DIFFERENCE = the rate at which coming to fixation occurs

Answer 223

Means that 30% difference in fitness across phenotypes Relative fitness = 0.7

Answer 224

Selection acts quickly but then slows down as the alleles apprach fixation - Selection occurs rapidly because any time the dominant alelle shows up it is seen by Nastural selection = NS can act on it BUT slows down as ut aporaches fixation becayse increase mean popultion fitness to bring it close to 1 = NS can only act on the deletrious recessive allele of which there are very few = Selection slows down

Answer 225

Seleection acts slowly but speeds up as the allele appraches fications - NS can only see the allele if it is in aa -- if the allele freqeuncey if a is low THEN teh frequncey of aa is even lower because aa is q^2 = have less aa for NS to act on -- NS can only act against the A alllele -- as frequncey of a increases = maintain varaiance in fitness because of teh heterozygous = NS can accelerate through to end point - NS is slow acting in favor of recssive because recssive won't have phenotypic affect = NS cam't fo anything (opposite for dominant because anytime you have dominant NS can act on it)

Answer 226

The difference is in the average excess –at low frequencies recessive alleles are most likely to combine with dominant gametes --> Therefore, the fitness effect of the allele is invisible to selection because it is mased by the dominant allele - Makes the benefical recessive at low frequencey hace slow chnage but then speed up as the alleles approach fixation Vs. At low frequencies the fitness effect of dominant alleles show up no matter who they combine with however, as they approach fixation, the population mean fitness getscloser and closer to the fitness of the allele –Therefore, the relative benefit of carrying the allele isn’t as strong

Answer 227

The highest or lowest value of a trait/alelle frequncey has the highest mean popultion fitness - Will always end up in the same place -- fixing for one allele P = 1 OR p=0 = has the highest mean population fitness In the absenece of other forces this leads to fixation for the favored allele

Answer 228

Only applies if teh relative fitness of Aa is between the bounds or equal to AA and aa - can be the same as AA or aa or in between the values of AA and aa

Answer 229

Heterozygous advatage -- Aa has teh highest fitness

Answer 230

Heterozygous infiriority -- Aa has the lowest fitness

Answer 231

1. Overdominance 2. Underdominance 3. Directional selection

Answer 232

Here Aa has the higehst fitness = we set Aa equal to 1

Answer 233

s and t keep track of the two selection coeffcinats seeprations IMAGE A = p --> use s -- Selection coefficient acting against A Aa = t P --> S q --> T

Answer 234

HERE WE MAKE THE LOWEST FITNESS EQUAL TO 1 -- divide the absolute fitness by fitness of Aa

Answer 235

s and t are negitive -- because the fitness of aa and AA should both be higher than Aa 1 - (-#) = gives a number greater than 1 In under dominencae - scale Aa to one (it will be the lowest -- only time you scale the lowest value to 1)

Answer 236

ONLY for underdominance (If the Aa has the lowest fitness)

Answer 237

calculate an equilibrium point -- static point in system (forces are balanced) Do this by solving for dP = 0

Answer 238

At that point evolution will no longer occur

Answer 239

AA = 1-s --> RF = 0.8 aa = 1-t --> RF = 0.9 Aa = 1 -- hightest p> = 0.1/().2 + 0.1) = 0.33 - Have equilbirum when p = 0.33 OR when the frequcney of q (a) = 0.67

Answer 240

Might have the same P> value but the nature of p> is difefrent P> for Overdominance is the highest point of fitness P> for underdominance is the lowest point of mean fitness - Fitness is lowest at p> for under dominance

Answer 241

value of P> is the peak -- theer is no dP - At the peak there is NO uphill to go = NS will stop (because NS always oushes uphill) - If to the left of the point -- then P will increase - If to the right of the point P will decrease - If you start at P> it will stay there --> if you move away from P> it will evolve to go back to P> - The direction depends on alelle frequncey BUT will always fix for the same point - The dP to the left will be posiutive (incvrease P) and dP to the right will be negitive (Push to decrease p)Reason that P> is the highest population fitness in overdomainnece

Answer 242

STABLE equillbirum

Answer 243

Overdomince = always fixing for one point - No matter the allele frequcney -- always fix for the same point Under dominace = there are two points that you can fix for -- don't knwo what wilol be fixed for - What will be fized for depends on allele frequcney

Answer 244

Still alwats going uphil - if start to the left of p> = the popultrion will evolove to p=0 - If start to the right of P. = NS will push P = 1 - If start at P> and all H-W assumptions are true -- it will stary there but only if we keep it there -- if it is perturbed = then it wil go uphill in eitehr way depending on how it was perturbed

Answer 245

Unstable Equillirbium -- does not return when pushed - if you start the poulation on one side it will go to fixation for p = 0 - If you start the population on the other side -- it will go to fixation for P = 1Harder to predict end point -- depends on the starting allele frequencey - Whether goes to P = 1 or P = 0 depends on the starting allele frequencey (Depends if the starting alelle frequncey starts above or below p>) STILL -- both will increase fitness

Answer 246

CLEAR case of over dominance AS = the highest fitness AA = get malaria --> S = 0.11 (RF = 0.89) AS = 1.0 -- in malaria envirnemnt you are better tan AA because resistant to malariaSS = 0.2 -- same in malaria and non-malraia envoirnmemnts -- still same fitness decrease as before

Answer 247

Chart = shows that if to the right of equillibriounm in a place with malaria = will increase in S allele (Decrease A) THEN negitive affect of SS is overcome by the increase in fitness oif AS = the frequncey of S will increase until P>

Answer 248

We already know that P = 0.88 --> Q = 0.12 Then we can know the frequncey of indovodulas maintained by NS q^2 = 0.12^2 = 0.014 --> means that 1% of the population is mainatined by NS - If you decrease S NS will push it basck up and increase the number of Individulas that have the disease

Answer 249

The heterozygote advantage of the S allele results in natural selection maintaining a very negative trait – sickle cell anemia- at a rate of nearly 1.5% in those populations!

Answer 250

1. Nothing in Biology makes sense except in light of evolution - Consistency in biology = constructions in biology imposed by evolution - No modern biology operates without evolution - Evolution is the process that is repsonsible for biodiversity of the world - Ties together all of modern biology (no aspect of modern biology is isolated from it) - spans all levels of biological organization -- links molecules to population's and ecosystems - It is fundamentally important to much of applied science (Both implicit and Explicit)

Answer 251

Diversity in form + function

Answer 252

Evolution = important to much of applied science (Matters in real world) Implicit: Ability to understand systems that rely on evolutionary framework Ex. usefulness of model organisms -- need to know ancestry of the organisms - We can then infer our biology based on other animals - Shows why we should be able to learn anything about us from a fruit fly Explicit: Evolution process = part of solution Example -- drug resistance (HIV -- works on evolutionary concepts and ecosystems) - HIV Antiviral cocktail -- works on the evolutionary concept of adaptive landscapes

Answer 253

Word theory is very different in scienceVernacular: Hunch/speculation/hypothesis Science: Set of overarching mechanisms + principles that explain a major aspect of natural world supported by individual lines of evidence

Answer 254

There is no such thing as the supernatural - means that nothing beyond the physical world exists (the physical world is the entirety of existing)

Answer 255

Means you can’t rely on supernatural explanations for physical phenomena (for empirical observations) - Need to have this is science (if not then science stops) - Came out of the enlightment -- once adopted this idea = then made progress (progress could be made once ascribed to this midset) - Without this we can give up when we encounter something that we don't understand - In order to science to work = need to operate under unwavering premise of naturalism MEANS -- There may be something to exist beyond nature BIT that is entirely outside the bounds of science

Answer 256

Evolvere -- To unfold + to unroll

Answer 257

Change in heritable properties of population in organism across generations OR change in allele frequency through time - Population level - Simple definition but plays out in complex ways

Answer 258

Framework of evolutions brought with it some implications --> Challenged some long-held beliefs of the world – changes the way people think about the living world 1. Chnage = the form of the living world - Individual perspective = limited – do not see much change in lifetime – easily in isolation to think that the world has always been the same as the world that you are observing - Accpeted first in geology before biology - Biology was already moving in this direction in the years leading up to Darwin 2. Biologic phenomena are explained by mechanisms concepts - Break from the earlier tradition of Aristotle Final Vs. Efficient causation - Biologic phenomena are not driven by some ultimate purpose 3. History is a crucial part of understanding nature - What we have now results from constraints in history - Historial constrigencey impacts outcomes of natural phenomena4. Variations is ubiqitous component of biological systems - MAJOR break from platonic essentialism --> they thought that variation is just miastakes

Answer 259

The study of variation in nature - How variation comes about and how is it maintained and what are the consequences - Looks at lots of time of variation - Looks Within species – Intraspecies - Looks Between species – interspecies - Looks on a phenotypic Level + One the genetic level + ALSO looks at the link between the two - Look at causes and consequences of variation in living systems

Answer 260

Probabolistic

Answer 261

Intra = Within species Inter = Between species

Answer 262

Darwin mistake = Endless forms of evolution – not true → more like myriad of forms because have biological contartints

Answer 263

Evolution as an on-going process in the natural world.