test

Question 1

give the characteristics of a good research aim

Answer 1

1 what is the focus of the research- what is the research focusing on and trying to explore, understand or answer
2. who will be involved in the study/research= an outline of the participants included which will assist in achieving the goal of the study
3. how the study will be carried and performed= the methodology of the study to obtain information, analysed data and interpret the data
4. where will the research/ study be conducted

Question 2

explain what interval data is 3

Answer 2

it has a rank order characteristics like ordinal data BUT also demonstrates known and = distances between the units of measurement. relative Dif and = within a scale can be measured.
remember the 10 thing for temp
measures are not related to a true zero but an ARTIFICIAL zero, no such thing as no temp/time

Question 3

explain what type 1 error in hypothesis is. 3

Answer 3

type 1 is a false positive. we reject the null hypothesis when actually it is true, thus concluding the results are stat sig but they actually because of chance
simbilized by alpha 0.05- p is smaller or = to 0.05

Question 4

explain confidence intervals

Answer 4

confidence intervals is a RANGE of scores with specific boundaries or confidence limits, that should contain the population mean.
they can take any number of probability limits but most researchers use 95%

Question 5

when is an independent (unpaired) t-test used for data analysis?

Answer 5

independent (unpaired) t-test is used when the means of 2 independent groups of subjects are compared

Question 6

define 4 ways of ensuring trustworthiness of data in qualitative research 8

Answer 6

Cre,Dep,Con, Trans
1. Credibility- the EXTENT to which the results of the research are believable/ confidence in truth of the data
2. Dependability- CONSISTENCY in the way the researcher conducted the study over time/stability of the data overtime and over conditions
3. Transferability- GENERALISATION of the study findings to another context
4. Conformability- researcher refers to the degree to which the results can be CORROBORATED by others, it also refers to objectivity and neutrality of the data

Question 7

differentiate between a code and a theme 2

Answer 7

code: is tags and labels for assigning units of meaning to the descriptive or inferential information compiled during a study.
Theme: themes are patterns across a data set that are important to the description of a phenomenon

Question 8

Distinguish between a quantitative and qualitative study 10

Answer 8

quantitative:
1. used to test hypotheses, look at cause and effect and make predictions.
2. studies which involve the collection and analysis of NUMERICAL DATA are known as quantitative research
3. the designs that are used are quasi- experimental designs, experimental designs and non experimental designs.
4. questions are closed ended
5. the data format is numerical compared to qualitative which is textual

Qualitative studies:
1. used to understand and interpret social interactions, its a systematic, subjective approach that uses non- numerical data to interpret peoples life experiences.
2. it is a system of inquiry which SEEKS TO BUILD a holistic,largerly narrative, description to Inform the researchers understanding of a social or cultural phenomenon- an approach used to describe life experiences and give them meaning.
3. aim and purpose used to gain insight; explore the depth, richness and complexity inherent in the phenomenon
4. its a exploratory design such as grounded ethnography, phenomenology theory, case study and narrative
5. questions are open ended eg how why ect vs how many

Question 9

Define what an outcome measure.

Answer 9

an outcome measure is defined as ‘ a measurement tool ( instrument, questionnaire, rating form, scale, standardised test) used document change in one or more client characteristics over time’

Question 10

explain two purposes of an outcome measure in research 4

Answer 10

establish baseline
measure change
enhance clinical decision making
allows to discuss patient care using common language
funding

Question 11

explain the terms validity

Answer 11

validity is the extent to which an instrument measures what it is intended to measure
validity places emphasis on OBJECTIVES OF THE TEST and ability to make inferences from the measurements
face validity: instrument appears to test what it is supposed to test
content validity- indicates that items that make up the instrument adequately cover the content that relates to the variable being measured
construct validity- theoretical basis for using a measurement for a specific purpose
criterion validity: ability of a test to predict results obtained on an external criterion. (rest of answer in relation to criterion.
sensitivity- measure of validity that someone will test POSITIVE WITH THAT CONDITON
Specificity- NEGATIVE IF THEY DONT HAVE IT
concurrent validity - degree tho which outcomes on one test correlate with outcomes of a criterion test
predictive validity- examines the justification of using a measurement to say something about the future events or conditions
prescriptive validity- refers to the validity of test when the results are used to determine the treatment the person will receive.

Question 12

explain the term reliability

Answer 12

reliability is the degree of consistency with which an instrument or rater measures a variable.
inter-rater relaibility- variations between TWO or more RATERS who measure the same group study of participants for a given variable should be in clinical contexts, strengthens the generalisability of research outcomes.
test retest reliability- degree to which an instrument is stable based on repeated administrations of the test to the same individuals over a specific time period, intervals should be far enough apart to avoid fatigue, learning or memory effects but close enough to avoid genuine changes
intra- rater reliability- stability of data recorded by one individual over 2 or more tests, raters can be influenced by their memories of the first score.
acceptable 0.8 or greater

Question 13

what is the declaration of helskini

Answer 13

a set of ethical guidelines/ prin for medical research on human subjects . 1964
it addresses aspects of medical research such as:
informed consent
risks
privacy and confidentiality
ethical committees
dissermasion of results
burdens and benefits of research

Question 14

discuss two responsibilities of researchers according to the sinagapore statement on research integrity

Answer 14

Integrity- researchers should take responsibility for the trustworthiness of their Research.
adherence to regulations- researchers should be aware of adherence to regulations and policies related to research

( others conflict of interest, research methods and research records)

Question 15

list three examples of what could be covered under staffing costs in a research budget

Answer 15

travelling costs
refreshments
printing

Question 16

describe the importance of formulating research objectives

Answer 16

objectives divide the research aim into several parts and address each part separately
it is one of the most significant aspect of a thesis, with the objective specifying HOW the aim will be achieved,, it establishes the scope, strength, and direction the research will eventually take, thus enabling the reader to clearly understand how the research article will achieve the objective of answering the aim

Question 17

Distinguish between independent, dependent and extraneous variables and give two examples for each

Answer 17

independent variables- this is the variable you are able to manipulate eg treatment/ treatment method- this is controlled by the researcher
dependent variables- this it the variable that is being measured eg HR/ M.S
Extraneous variables- this the relationship between the independent and dependent variables. eg mood, age
this affects the dependent variables
these results can lead to altered misleading interpretations and flawed conclusions

Question 18

define 4 ways of ensuring trustworthiness of data in qualitative research

Answer 18

Cre,Dep,Con, Trans
1. Credibility- the EXTENT to which the results of the research are believable/ confidence in truth of the data
2. Dependability- CONSISTENCY in the way the researcher conducted the study over time/stability of the data overtime and over conditions
3. Transferability- GENERALISATION of the study findings to another context
4. Conformability- researcher refers to the degree to which the results can be CORROBORATED by others, it also refers to objectivity and neutrality of the data

Question 19

differentiate between code and theme

Answer 19

code: is tags and labels for assigning units of meaning to the descriptive or inferential information compiled during a study.
Theme: themes are patterns across a data set that are important to the description of a phenomenon

Question 20

list 4 ways of collecting data in qualitative research

Answer 20

observations: field work
interviews: face to face or by electronic means
documents: public docs, minutes of meetings
audio/video: photos, video tapes, films and tapes

Question 21

define the term inductive coding

Answer 21

data analysis where the researcher reads and interprets raw textual data to develop concepts, themes or process model through interpretation based on data

Question 22

what is deductive coding

Answer 22

you start with a predefined set of codes, then asking those codes to the new qualitative data

Question 23

what type of data is represented by the following examples?
sensation testing
side of hemi
age

Answer 23

sen= ordinal
side= nominal
age= ratio

Question 24

explain what a hypothesis is in research

Answer 24

involves producing an educated guess about the outcome of the study.
the guess is the hypothesis
it is a decretive statement that predicts the relationship between the independent and dependent variables.

Question 25

what level of significance is used to inorder to minimise a type 1 error in clinical trials

Answer 25

alpha represents a criterion for judging if an observed difference can be considered a sampling error or real
the selected alpha represents the max acceptable risk of making a type one error
usually 5% or p is less or equal to 0.05

Question 26

what level of significance is used to inorder to minimise a type 2 error in clinical trials

Answer 26

statistical power
the probability of making a type two error is denotes by beta
beta is the probability that a test will lead to rejection of the null hypothesis, or the probability of attaining statistical sig
beta = 0.20 the power = 0.80

Question 27

explain why it is NB to estimate a sample size for a clinical trial

Answer 27

avoids unnecessarily large samlples which may waste time and resources
is req for putting together a proposal
needed for ethical clearance
Essential for wanting to publish results in peer review journals
sample sizes that are too small may lead to inaccurate results
we always estimate the minimum sample req for a study
influence of sample size on stat power is critical
the larger the sample the greater the stat power of the results

Question 28

explain two factors that determine the choice of outcome measures in research

Answer 28

valid- validity is the extent to which an instrument measures what it is intended to measure
validity places emphasis on OBJECTIVES OF THE TEST and ability to make inferences from the measurements
reliable-reliability is the degree of consistency with which an instrument or rater measures a variable.
feasible
economical responsive

Question 29

briefly describe five objectives of a pilot study

Answer 29

feasibility of the study protocol
radmization and blinding
acceptability of the intervention
selection of the appropriate primary outcome measure
sample size calculation
recruitment and consent

Question 30

compare consent and assent

Answer 30

consent must always be given in a written format and is done after the participants have been given the info sheet
they must be able to make rational decisions
for peads age 7-18 should be asked for assent and a parent is req to give consent
consent overrides assent but not opposite way

Question 31

what is the DOH

Answer 31

The doh are ethical guidelines/prin for medical research on human subjects
1964
it addresses aspects of medical research such as
informed consent
disemation of results
risks
burdens and benefits of research
research ethics Committee
privacy and confidentiality

Question 32

list 4 items you would budget for when conducting a act

Answer 32

printing eg consent forms
outcome measure licences
research assistant
translator

Question 33

indicate the aspects which should be addressed in the research aim

Answer 33

Why is this research required?
What is this research about?
How are you going to do it?
who will be involved in the research
where will the research be conducted
The first question, why, provides context to your research project, the second question, what, describes the aim of your research, and the last question, how, acts as an introduction to your objectives which will immediately follow.

Question 34

distinguish between research aims and objectives

Answer 34

The research aim focus on what the research project is intended to achieve; research objectives focus on how the aim will be achieved.
Research aims are relatively broad; research objectives are specific.
Research aims focus on a project’s long-term outcomes; research objectives focus on its immediate, short-term outcomes.
A research aim can be written in a single sentence or short paragraph; research objectives should be written as a numbered list.

Question 35

indicate the aspects which should be addressed in the research objectives

Answer 35

Specific – is there any ambiguity in the action you are going to undertake, or is it focused and well-defined?
Measurable – how will you measure progress and determine when you have achieved the action?
Achievable – do you have the support, resources and facilities required to carry out the action?
Relevant – is the action essential to the achievement of your research aim?
Timebound – can you realistically complete the action in the available time alongside your other research tasks?

Question 36

differentiate between quantitative and qualitative design

Answer 36

quantitative:
1. used to test hypotheses, look at cause and effect and make predictions.
2. studies which involve the collection and analysis of NUMERICAL DATA are known as quantitative research
3. the designs that are used are quasi- experimental designs, experimental designs and non experimental designs.
4. questions are closed ended
5. the data format is numerical compared to qualitative which is textual

Qualitative studies:
1. used to understand and interpret social interactions, its a systematic, subjective approach that uses non- numerical data to interpret peoples life experiences.
2. it is a system of inquiry which SEEKS TO BUILD a holistic,largerly narrative, description to Inform the researchers understanding of a social or cultural phenomenon- an approach used to describe life experiences and give them meaning.
3. aim and purpose used to gain insight; explore the depth, richness and complexity inherent in the phenomenon
4. its a exploratory design such as grounded ethnography, phenomenology theory, case study and narrative
5. questions are open ended eg how why ect vs how many

Question 37

list one aim of a qualitative research

Answer 37

used to understand and interpret social interactions, its a systematic, subjective approach that uses non- numerical data to interpret peoples life experiences.

Question 38

differentiate between three types of qualitative research

Answer 38

narrative
case study- detailed study of a specific subject, focuses on gaining a holistic understanding of the case
ground theory- aims to develop a theory inductively by systematically analysing qualitative data
ethnography- detailed study of the culture of a specific community or group
phenomenology- aims to understand a phenomenon or event by describing participants lived experiences

Question 39

list ways of analysing qualitative data

Answer 39

qualitative research analyses words
first the recorded is transcribed then the chunks are reduced to codes, the codes are then organised into themes. the data is then described the process is iterative
software like ATLAS.ti can be used
manual anyalisis also an option

Question 40

list 4 ways of collecting data in qualitative data

Answer 40

observation
interviews
Documents
audio/video tapes

Question 41

explain the term null hypothesis

Answer 41

for any research intervention it is due to either the due the observed difference from the intervention or change
we stat the null hypothesis to hope we can reject it, we assume there is no relationship until evidence tells us otherwise
the purpose of stat hypothesis is to decide if the null hypth is false
the hypothesis that there is no significant difference between specified populations, any observed difference being due to sampling or experimental error.

Question 42

explain the use of correlations in stats

Answer 42

done by calculating the correlation coefficients
they are used to express the degree and direction of association between two or more variables
useful for determining the validity and reliability of clinical measures
expressed as the value of r
ranges from -1 to 1
correlation is an effect size so we can verbally describe the strength of the correlation for the absolute value of r

Question 43

explain 4 purposes of using an outcome measure

Answer 43

establish baseline
measure change
enhance clinical decision making
allows to discuss patient care using common language
funding

Question 44

list 4 criteria used when choosing an outcome measure

Answer 44

reliability
validity
feasible (possible and practical
economical
responsive- context, ie make sure it is context specific and appropriate for the population

Question 45

what determines the choice of an outcome measure

Answer 45

the aims of the research
the hypothesis of the research

Question 46

what are challengers in using an outcome measure

Answer 46

availability of relevant outcome measure
resources to develop own tools
resources to do extensive research to determine which are the best
resources to pay for some of the tools

Question 47

explain two types of validity

Answer 47

validity is the extent to which an instrument measure what it is meant to measure
context validity- indicates the items that make up the instrument adequately cover the content that relates to the variable being measured
face validity- instrument appers to test what it is supposed to test
contstruct validity- theoretical basis for using a measurement for a specific purpose
criterion validity- degree to which outcomes on one test correlate with outcomes of a criterion test

Question 48

briefly discuss the rational of conducting a pilot study

Answer 48

process- assess the feasibility of the steps that need to be taken place as part of the larger study
resources- looking at time/ budget issues that occur in the larger study
management - potential human and data optimisation problems such as personal and data management issues at the centres
Scientific- assessment of the treatment safety, detrmintes of the dose levels and response and estimation of the RX effects

Question 49

discuss the difference between a systematic and random error in research and what needs to be done to minimise the error

Answer 49

systematic ( eg giving a 2 kg weight to every participant)
it is constant and predictable it does not effect the reliability but does affect the validity as despite being constant it they are not a true reflection of the quantity being measured

random error- ( eg random measurement error due to fatigue)
unpredictable
due to change and chance from trial to trial

how to minimise?
careful planning
assessor training
have detailed step by step testing protocol
check and calibrate equipment regularly
remember environment

Question 50

what NB aspects of research ethics in research need to be included in the written research proposal

Answer 50

participation info sheet- name and introduction of researcher, name/ loc of uni, title, aim and purpose
informed consent forms- written format, going after info, concent/ assent
human research ethics committee - all studies need to be passed by the uni ethics committee before commencement
ethical considerations- use doh and Singapore
to HERC
participants volunteered and forced

Question 51

what should be included in operating funds

Answer 51

travelling, printing refreshments

Question 52

explain what ratio data is

Answer 52

ultimate standard of measurement
it has an interval with an absolute emerical true zero and not an arbitory one.
a score of zero represents an absence of whatever property is being measured
no neg values eg height, age, rom
the numbers on the scale rep the actual amount that was measured
can use wide rand of descriptive and infernal analysis

Question 53

name 2 methods of dealing with missing data

Answer 53

intention to treat analysis- data is analysed assuming each person received the Intervention in which they were assigned
lost observation carry forward- subjects last data points before dropping out is used as the outcome score, assumption is the person would improve from start to end
per-protocol analysis- only subjects who completed the trial are analysed according to the intervention they received

Question 54

outline the purpose of a qualitative research and give an example of one question

Answer 54

it’s a systematic subjective approach that uses non- numerical data to interpret peoples life experiences. the aim and purpose to gain an insight, explore the richness and complexity of a phenomenon
it is used to gain understanding of the underlying reasons, attitudes and experiences and opionions
exploratory study design
why do the third years feel stressed after they finish their research test

Question 55

4 ways data can be collected in qualitative research

Answer 55

interviews
observations
documents
audio and videos/ visual material

Question 56

how do you ensure trustworthiness in qualitative research

Answer 56

credibility- the extent results of the research belivable/ confidence in truth of the data
Transferability- generalisation of the study to other contexts
dependability- consistency in the way the researcher conducted the study over time/ stability of the data over time and over conditions
conformability- the degree to which the results can be corroborated by others; it also refers to the objectivity and neutrality of the data

Question 57

explain how a clinician can identify and clarify a research topic

Answer 57

by formulating an accurate list of aims and objectctives for the topic will establish the scope, strength, and direction of the topic, an effective aim/objective with draw the readers attention a provide the reader with a clear understanding with aim specifying WHAT is going to be achieved and HOW it will be achieved
for objectives use the smart prin

Question 58

name two types of research questions

Answer 58

descriptive
casual
relational

Question 59

explain the purpose of a pilot study

Answer 59

a pilot study is a small study to test the research protocols, sample recruitment strategies, data collection instruments and other research tech in preparation for the larger study.
tests of methods for the larger study
test for feasibility of methods and procedures
search for possible effects and association
objectives
calculation of study sample
acceptability of intervention
recruitment and consent selection of most appropriate primary outcome measure
reasons
process- feasible ; steps needed problems
resources- looking at time/ budget problems that can occur
management - data probs
scinfiic- saftey, does, treatment effects, response

check instructions, researchers are skilled, eq, reliability and validity

Question 60

state the 3 measures of central tendency and give an eg of the type of data that is applicable to each

Answer 60

central tendency are numerical indices that desirable the typical nature of the data
mode- is the score that appears most freq in the disribution
mean= avg, it is the sum of the set of scores divide by the number of scores
median- the value above which there are as many scores below it

Question 61

explain correlation in stats

Answer 61

done by calculating the correlation coefftiant
correlations are used to express the degree and direction of associations between two or more variables
uses r, -1 to 1
need p when describing it
useful for determine the reliability and validity of clinical measures
they calculated from pairs of data
correlations is an effect size so we can verbally describe the strength of the correlation for the absolute value of r

Question 62

define confidence intervals

Answer 62

it is a range of scores with specific boundaries and confidence limits, that should contain the populations MEAN
the boundaries of the ci is based on the sample mean and its standard error
ci is expressed by probability % usually 95%

Question 63

define sampling error

Answer 63

used in inferential stats based on two assumptions
1. sampels are random
2. the samples are valid rep of the population sample
the tendency for the sample values to differ from the population values is called a sample error
the smaller the sample error the more rep the samples is to the population

Question 64

explain two types of qualitative research

Answer 64

narrative
case study- detailed study of a specific subject, focuses on gaining a holistic understanding of the case
ground theory- aims to develop a theory inductively by systematically analysing qualitative data
ethnography- detailed study of the culture of a specific community or group
phenomenology- aims to understand a phenomenon or event by describing participants lived experiences

Question 65

why are act seen as the gold standard of of research designs

Answer 65

they are considered as the gold standard because they deliver the highest level of evidence, due to their potential to limit all sorts of bias.
there is a high level of control of variables
ability to control threats threats to internal validity

Question 66

efficacy vs effectiveness

Answer 66

efficacy- defined as the benefit of the intervention compared to a standard program or control group
effectiveness- benefits of the intervention tested under real world conditions

Question 67

what steps, as outlined by the consort committee should be followed to ensure standarsation of rcts 7

Answer 67

SPECIFY the independent variable
specify the dependent variables
identify extraneous variables
choose an appropriate experimental design
deine the population
select the sample (inclusion/exclution criteria and sampling
allocations to group
administer intervention
record observation

Question 68

Nb of using standardised outcome measures in research

Answer 68

an outcome measure is defined as ‘ a measurement tool ( instrument, questionnaire, rating form, scale, standardised test) used document change in one or more client characteristics over time’
it allows there to be an objective establishment of a baseline of values and functions
allows us to develop research that is evidence based as there are objective measures to support support results of a particular intervention
allows to to discuss patient care using common language
inorder to receive funding for research?
it helps predict, guide and rationalise the treatment chosen and prescribed
it allows therapists to identify key points of dysfunction and where treatment should be focused

Question 69

Dif between independent and dependent

Answer 69

independent variable is the is the variable you are able to manipulate eg type of treatment, teaching method
researcher controls
dependent variable- is the variable that is measure eg HR.

Question 70

define intention to treat

Answer 70

data is analysed assuming each person received the treatment they were meant to receive

Question 71

discuss 2 determinants of statistical power

Answer 71

significance of criterion- alpha and beta have no direct mathematical relationship but they have a trade off relationship
sample size- critical, larger the sample the greater the statistical power
effect size- size effect of the experiment influences power, larger effect size the smaller the sample needed
variance in data- power of statistical test increases as the variance in the data sets decrease

Question 72

when would you use peason

Answer 72

correlation test, independent measures, 2 group - para

Question 73

mann- whitney u test/spearmen

Answer 73

correlation test independent measures 2 groups non para

Question 74

krustkal walls test

Answer 74

independent measures more than 2 groups - non para

Question 75

matched pair test

Answer 75

repeated measures 2 conditions para

Question 76

wilcoxon

Answer 76

repeated measures 2 conditions non para

Question 77

Friedmans

Answer 77

repeated measures more than 2 conditions non para