Test 2 Flashcards by Noelle Paterson

What are pilot studies?
a. Smaller and less intense versions of a larger study
b. Studies of small whales
c. Studies of pilots
d. None of the above
e. All of the above

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What stage: when testing new therapies in studies of cell cultures, tissus, and in animals?
a. preclinical
b. phase I
c. phase II
d. phase III
e. phase IV

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What stage: when testing new therapies in unblinded, uncontrolled studies in a few volunteers to test safety?
a. preclinical
b. phase I
c. phase II
d. phase III
e. phase IV

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What stage: when testing new therapies in relatively small randomised of time series trials to test tolerability and different intensity or dose of the intervention on biomarkers or clinical outcomes?
a. preclinical
b. phase I
c. phase II
d. phase III
e. phase IV

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What stage: when testing new therapies in relatively large randomised blinded trials to test conclusively the effect of the therapy on clinical outcomes and adverse events?
a. preclinical
b. phase I
c. phase II
d. phase III
e. phase IV

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What stage: when testing new therapies in large trials or observational studies conducted after the therapy has been approved by FDA or Health Canada to assess the rate of uncommon serious side effects and evaluate additional therapeutic uses?
a. preclinical
b. phase I
c. phase II
d. phase III
e. phase IV

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Characteristics of a good research question include?
a. feasible
b. interesting
c. Novel
d. ethical
e. all of the above

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Observational designs include?
a. cohort studies adn cross-sectional studies
b. case-controlled and cohort studies
c. case-controlled and cross-sectional studies
d. prevalence surveys and cohort studies
e. all of the above

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What desgin is described as two-groups selected based on the presence or absence of an outcome?
a. cohort study
b. cross-sectional study
c. case-controlled study
d. randomised controlled trial
e. all of the above

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What term is referred to variables that potentially influence the occurrence, size, or frequency of an outocme varibale?
a. predictor
b. independent
c. experiemental
d. all of the above
e. none of the above

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Statistical issues can relate. to estimations of?
a. sample
b. power
c. participant characteristics
d. measurement procedures
e. all of the above

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Generalizability refers to?
a. the degree to which the investigators draw correct conclusions
b. the degree which these conclusions can be applied to events outside the study
c. the degree to which the measures correlate with
e. all of the above

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Confounding variables are?
a. Variables the influence outcome variables in a similar way as predictor variables
b. the natural variation within the data
c. the result of biases in the process of data collection and analysis
d. variables unrelated to outcome variables
e. none of the above

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Which of the following designs use nonprobability samples?
a. randomised controlled trials
b. simple random sample
c. stratified random sample
d. randomised cluster sample
e. none of the above

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Categorical variables include
a. dichotomous variables
b. nominal variables
c. ordinal variables
d. all of the above
e. none of the above

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What variable type can normally calculate means and standard deviations?
a. dichotomous
b. nominal
c. ordinal
d. continous or discrete
e. none of the above

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What is the term for the degree of alignment of items within a test?
a. inter-rater reliability
b. test-retest reliability
c. internal consistency reliability
d. precision
e. random error

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How well the measurement represents all aspects of the phenomenon is?
a. content validity
b. face validity
c. construct validity
d. discriminant validity
e. convergent validity

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The degree to whether the approach measures the theoretical components of the construct is?
a. content validity
b. face validity
c. construct validity
d. discriminant validity
e. convergent validity

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A research hypothesis is?
a. A statement of how the hypothesized phenomenon acts
b. the outcome from a specified state of the phenomenon
c. a “null” hypothesis
d. an alternative hypothesis
e. none of the above

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A T-test assumes?
a. skewed distribution
b. a binominal distribution
c. a logistic distribution
d. a normal distribution
e. categorical correctness

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A chi-square calculates the significant differences between?
a. continuous variables
b. logistic and normal distributions
c. ordinal and categorical data
d. observed and expected frequencies of categorical variables
e. none of the above

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Case-Control studies
a. begin by choosing participants with an outcome and another set without the outcome
b. are typically retrospective
c. provide descriptive information on “case-ness”, and estimate the strength of association between predictor and outcome variables
d. typically not used to make prevalence estimates
e. all of the above

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An example of an interaction between conditions in a factorial design is?
a. the main effect of the independent variable on the dependent variable
b. randomising participants based on expected strata thought to be influential on the outcomes
c. only at a specific dose does a specific intervention change functioning compared to the other dose and intervention
d. dynamic and emergent ideas
e. all of the above

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What does cluster randomisation avoid? a. random sampling b. differences between clusters c. "contamination" between socialising individuals d. integration e. none of the above

What is a parallel group design? a. each group receives a different treatment at the same time b. participants from one group are mathed with the other to account for confounding variables c. participants are assessed pre and post the test to investigate changes d. the participant (single) or investigators (double) are blind to participant allocation e. participants receive a placebo (an inert substance) they believe is an actual drug

What describes this relationship: as one variable increases the other variable decreases? a. positive b. negative c. curvilinear d. bi-modal e. none

The sample size a. is the number of participants in the study b. affects the likelihood of finding significant results c. is important for epidemiological studies d. is often estimated based on data from the literature e. all of the above

Browner et al. (2022) suggests what is the first type of study in the study design sequence? a. description of the issue b. analytical studies c. clinical trials d. systematic reviews and meta-analyses e. all of the above

Typically, the design section includes a. a review of the literature b. the major results c. a discussion of the important findings d. a succinct summary of the study that describes the design and research question e. none of the above

What are variables described in a Quantitative article? a. introduction b. method c. results d. discussion e. conclusion

What is the natural variation in the data? a. systemic bias b. confidence intervals c. researcher perspectives d. random error e. all of the above

Convenience Samples are? a. porbabilistic b. representative c. stratified d. based on equal chance e. none of the above

Categorical Variables can be? a. dichotomous b. nominal c. ordinal d. yes or no e. all of the above

Numeric Variable can be? a. categorical b. ordinal c. nominal d. dichotomous e. none of the above

Quantitative Researchers prefer which sort of variables? a. ordinal b. categorical c. nominal d. dichotomous e. continuous

What is how well does the test measure the construct from one time to another? a. internal validity b. Test-Retest reliability c. construct validity d. internal consistency reliability e. none of the above

What is the ability of the measure ot assess related phenomena? a. content validity b. face validity c. internal reliability d. convergent validity e. discriminant validity

What phrase defines the "null" hypothesis? a. an association between the predictor and outcome variable b. higher frequencies of the predictor variable results in greater incidence of the outcome variable c. there is no difference or effect of the predictor variable on the outcome variable d. lower frequencies of the predictor variable results in lower incidence of the outcome variable e. all of the above

Type I error happens when? a. an investigator indicates the phenomenon exists but the real phenomenon does not exist b. if the investigator indicates the phenomenon does not exist but the real phenomenon exists c. if the investigator indicates a phenomenon does exist and the phenomenon exists d. if the investigator indicates a phenomenon does not exist and the phenomenon does not exist e. all of the above

Sensitivity is? a. the proportion of positives that are correctly identified b. the proportion of negatives that are correctly identified c. the proportion of positives incorrectly identified e. none of the above

Alpha is another word for? a. beta b. power c. type I error d. type II error e. effect size

Cohort Studies? a. follow cases and controls b. assess participants a single point in time c. manipulate an independent variable d. measure of group of participants over a period of time e. none of the above

What is the major weakness of case-control studies? a. multiple outcome variables can be studied b. only one outcome variable can be studied c. there is no comparison group d. the lack of predictor variables e. all of the above

Within-group designs a. compare measurements between cases and controls b. compare measures within the same group c. focus on researcher perspectives d. follow participants over several decades e. all of the above

Wait-list Approaches a. assess participants at different times b. compare active v.s. inactive treatments c. allows for treatment and non-treatment comparisons d. compare responses over time e. all of the above

Titration means? a. steady state b. keeping the dose at the optimal level c. keeping the dose at a high level d. low rates of adverse events e. none of the above

What is the 'cleanest' way to demonstrate the efficacy of an intervention? a. combining treatments b. using multiple interventions c. using no co-interventions d. equalising interventions between groups e. all of the above

Browner et al. (2022) suggest using how many measure for the primary outcome? a. one b. two c. three d. four e. five

Browner et al. (2022) suggest the primary outcome measure a. reflects the main question b. used to calculate the sample size c. is the priority of the study d. is the singular primary outcome measure e. all of the above

What data is required to estimate a sample size? a. average/ mean b. standard deviation c. number of participants d. previous effect sizes e. all of the above

Recruiting for clinical trials is easier or harder than observational studies a. easier b. harder

Factorial Designs investigate a. one research question b. two or more research questions c. factors d. matrices e. none of the above

Adaptive Designs need a. close scrutiny b. surrogate end-point c. verification by other researchers d. additional funding e. longer trial durations

Cross-over designs a. allocate participants to one condition b. are shorter than other approaches c. require additional control groups d. switch group membership e. none of the above

What is the best way to address unknown confounders? a. stratification b. clustering c. match pairs d. randomisation e. none of the above

Within-group designs a. compare participants between groups b. compare participants who experience the same treatment or intervention c. compare placebo v.s. active treatments d. compare observational designs v.s. experiments e. all of the above

Describe a scientific method

Empirical and measurable evidence that creates hypotheses to make predictions based on the hypotheses. These studies can can be repeated by others, which can allow for re-testing of the theory. Evidence is based on truth, it is generalizable and variant. | - Empirical & measurable - Repeated studies - Re-testing - Based on trut

Define a Cohort Study

A cohort study is the measurement of a group of participants that are followed for a period of time (a longitudinal study) with 2 types, prospective and retrospective. It also has less bias. An example of a cohort study would be studying the number of new cases over time | - measurement of group participants - less bias - 2 types: prospective,

Define a cross-sectional study (data collection)

Cross-sectional studies collect data during a one-time period. A sample of the data is selected from a population & examines the distributions of these variables. This form of study focuses on prevalence. | - collect data during one-time period - sample of data selected from a

Define a case-controlled study

Case-controlled studies are typically retrospective and provide descriptive information & estimate the strength of association between the predictor & outcome variables which are then compared to study the outcomes | - restrospective - descriptive information - estimate strength and ass

Randomised Controlled Trial

A randomised controlled trial is a parallel between groups design. The study randomly assigns participants to specified groups e.g., one group receives treatment intervention while the other does not. There are 3 different types of randomisation (block randomisation, stratified block randomisation, and randomisation of matched pairs) | - parallel between groups design - randomly assigns participants to spe

What are inclusion and exclusion criteria?

Inclusion and exclusion criteria are a part of study subjects. It is a way to specify the subjects when designing the study. It is used to target the appropriate (inclusion) participants and exclude (exclusion) those who don't meet the criteria of the study | - Inclusion appropriate - Exclusion innapropriate

Define Numeric Variables (Measurement Scale)

Numeric variables are continuous & discrete. Continuous variables have an infinite scale such as time while the discrete variables on a scale such as GPA, discrete variables can sometimes act like continuous variables. Numeric variables are quantified by a number to express how many. | - continuous and discrete variables - scale such as gpa - discrete can

Define Categorical Variables (measurement scale)

There are are 3 types, dichotomous, nominal, and ordinal. These are phenomenon that is not quantifiable but represent categorical events. Dichotomous variables variables are one of two classes; nominal (classes with no rank) and ordinal (rank but no quantifiable order) | - 3 types (dichotomous, nominal, ordinal) - phenomenon not quantifiable

What are confounding variables?

Confounding variables are variables that influence outcome variables in a similar way as predictor variables

What is systemic error?

Systemic error is the result of biased process of data collection and analysis (e.g., sampling error, measurement error)

What nonprobability samples?

These are samples where eligible participants do not have the same chance of selection. Two common samples are convenience samples and consecutive sampling

Define a cross-over design

A cross-over design is an alternative randomised design. Half of the participants are randomly allocated to start in the control part in the treatment condition, then switched to the opposite condition

What is validity?

(Browner et al., 2022) reports validity resembles accuracy, and suggests it adds qualitative dimensions to how well measurement represents the phenomenon

What are intention to treat analyses?

An important piece for evaluating the difference between those that complete & those that drop out from the intervention.

Define Minimal Risk Research

Minimal risk research is defined as 'research in which the probability & magnitude of possible harms implied by participation in research are no greater than those encountered by participants in those aspects of their everyday life that relate to the research." It helps the REB decide the level of review required for research proposal to adhere to an ethical standard.

# [](http://) 3 Important Aspects of Consent

1. Voluntary 2. Informed 3. Ongoing

3 Types of Conflict of Interest

1. Interpersonal relationships 2. Financial partnerships 3. Other economic interests 4. Academic interests

Describe a convergent parallel mixed methods design

Convergent mixed methods parallel design collects qualitative & quantitative research concurrently, analyses the two types of data separately, and then compares the results to see if the finding can confirm or disconfirm each other. The assumption is that the two approaches should produce a similar result.

Explain the explanatory sequential mixed methods design

This approach is a 2-phase project where the researcher collects quantitative data in phase-I, analyses the results, and uses those results to plan the qualitative phase (phase-II) typically the procedure is a large quantitative sample

Describe an exploratory sequential design

Also has a 2-phase sequence, HOWEVER, starts with qualitative phase and finishes with a quantitative phase. The other difference is that, this approach is to get more precise measurements of the research question and see if the responses from the qualitative sample generalize to the larger quantitative study