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Motor Learning > Test 2 > Flashcards

Test 2 Flashcards

1
Q

What is attention?

A

Refers to several characteristics associated with perceptual, cognitive, and motor activities that establish limits to our performance of motor skills

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2
Q

What does attention limit of influence doing performance?

A

When we do more than one activity at the same time

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3
Q

What are attention theories?

A

Filter theories
Central-resource capacity theories of attention

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4
Q

What is filter theory?

A

Difficulty doing multiple tasks at one time because of the inability to serially process multiple stimuli

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5
Q

What are Central-resource capacity theories of attention?

A

Attention-capacity theories propose one central source of attentional resources for which all activities requiring attention compete.

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6
Q

What is an example of Central-resource capacity theories of attention?

A

Kahneman’s attention theory

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7
Q

What is Kahneman’s attention theory?

A

Views attention as cognitive effort, which relates to the mental resources needed to carry out specific activities
- The amount of attention capacity available for a specific performance situation is determined by the person’s arousal level

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8
Q

What are the 3 rules of Kahneman’s attention theory to allocate attention resources when performing multiple tasks?

A
  1. Allocate attention to ensure completion
  2. enduring dispositions
  3. Momentary intentions
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9
Q

What is the multiple resource theories?

A

Alternative to central resource theories
- Propose that we have several resources for attention
- Success in performing 2 or more tasks simultaneously depends on whether those tasks demand our attention from a common resource or from different resources

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10
Q

What are different types of focus?

A

Attentional
Width
Direction
Attention switching

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11
Q

What is attentional focus?

A

The directing of attention to specific aspects of our performance or performance environment

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12
Q

What is width focus?

A

Focus can be broad or narrow

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13
Q

What is direction of focus?

A

Focus can be external or internal

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14
Q

What is attention switching?

A

The changing of attentional focus

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15
Q

What does the action effect hypothesis propose?

A

That actions are best planned and controlled by their intended effects

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16
Q

What does common coding view predict?

A

That actions will be more effective when they are planned in terms of their intended outcomes

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17
Q

What is automaticity?

A

Performance of a skill (or its parts) with little/no demand on attention capacity

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18
Q

What is visual selective attention?

A

Term used to refer to the detection and selection of performance-related information in the performance environment

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19
Q

What are the 3 aspects of action control process that visual search picks up information influences?

A

Action selection
Constructing of the selected action
Timing of action initiation

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20
Q

What is the quiet eye?

A

Refers to the amount of time devoted to the final fixation just before movement initiation

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21
Q

What is memory?

A

The capacity that permits organisms to benefit from past experiences

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22
Q

What are the 2 functional systems that comprise the memory structure?

A

Working memory
Long-term memory

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23
Q

What are the functions of memory?

A

Storage of information
Retrieval of information
System-specific functions

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24
Q

What are the subsystems of working memory?

A

Phonological loop
Visuospatial sketchpad
Central executive

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25
Q

What are the subsystems for long-term memory?

A

Procedural memory
Semantic memory
Episodic memory

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26
Q

What is working memory associated with?

A

Sensory
Perceptual
Attentional
Short-terms memory processes

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27
Q

When does working memory operate?

A

All situations requiring the temporary use and storage of information and the execution of memory and response production processes

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28
Q

What is the function of working memory?

A

Enables people to respond according to the demands of a “right now” sitation

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29
Q

What is the duration on working memory?

A

Maintains information for 20-30 seconds before losing parts of information

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30
Q

What is working memory capacity?

A

Can store about 7 items, plus or minus 2 items

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31
Q

What are processing activities?

A

Information that is active in working memory is processed in such a was as to allow a person to achieve the goal of the problem at hand

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32
Q

What is long term memory?

A

A more permanent storage repository of information

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33
Q

What is the function of long-term memory?

A

allows people to have information about specific past events as well as general knowledge

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34
Q

What is the duration of long-term memory?

A

Generally accepted that the information resides in a relatively permanent state in long-term memory

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35
Q

What is the capacity of long-term memory?

A

Relatively unlimited capacity for information in long-term memory

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36
Q

What are the 3 types of memory systems in long-term memory?

A

Procedural
Semantic
Episodic

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37
Q

What is the procedural memory system?

A

Enables us to know “how to do”, as opened to enabling us to know “what to do”

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38
Q

What is semantic memory systems?

A

Stores our general knowledge about the world based on experiences (conceptual knowledge)

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39
Q

What are episodic memory systems?

A

stores our knowledge about personally experienced events along with their temporal association

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40
Q

What is declarative knowledge?

A

Knowledge about what to do in a situation that is verbalized

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41
Q

What is procedural knowledge?

A

Knowledge that enables one to actually perform a skill (not verbalized)

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42
Q

What is encoding?

A

Memory process of transforming to-be-remembered information into a form that can be stored in memory

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43
Q

What is storage?

A

Process of placing information in long-term memory

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44
Q

What is retrieval?

A

Process of searching through long-term memory of information needed for present use

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45
Q

What are explicit memory tests?

A

Recall test
Recognition test

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46
Q

What are the benefits of recall and recognition tests?

A

Each provides different information about what has been remembered or forgotten

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47
Q

What are implicit memory test?

A

Assess implicit memory by asking a person to verbally describe how to perform a skill and then asking him or her to perform it

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48
Q

What are causes of forgetting?

A

Trace decay
Proactive interference
Retroactive interference

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49
Q

How can a movement be meaningful?

A

It can be related to something a person knows

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50
Q

What are strategies that enhance memory performance?

A

Visual metaphoric imagery
Verbal label
The intention to remember
Subjective organization

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51
Q

What is performance?

A

Execution of a skill at a specific time and in a specific location

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52
Q

What is learning?

A

A change in the capability to perform a skill that must be inferred from a relatively permanent improvement in performance as a result of practice or experiance

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53
Q

What are the 6 characteristics of skill learning?

A
  1. Improvement
  2. Consistency
  3. Stability
  4. Persistance
  5. Adaptability
  6. Reduction in attention demand
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54
Q

What are the 6 ways we assess motor learning?

A
  1. Observing practice performance
  2. Performance curves for outcome measures
  3. Retention tests
  4. Transfer tests
  5. Coordination dynamics
  6. Dual-task procedure
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55
Q

What are performance curves?

A

Line graph describing performance in which the level of achievement of a performance measure is plotted for a specific sequence of time

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56
Q

What are the 4 types of performance curves?

A

Linear
Negatively accelerated
Positively accelerated
Ogive or S-shape

57
Q

What is linear performance curves?

A

Proportional performance increase overtime

58
Q

What is negatively accelerated performance curves?

A

Large amount of improvement occurs early, but slows later

59
Q

What is positively accelerated performance curves?

A

Slight performance gain early in practice, but substantial improvement later

60
Q

What is ogive or S-shaped performance curves?

A

Combination of A,B, and C

61
Q

What are retention tests?

A

Tests of a practiced skill performed following an interval of time after practice has ceased

62
Q

What is the purpose of retention tests?

A

Assess performance or persistence of the performance level achieved during practice

63
Q

What is a transfer test?

A

Assesses the adaptability of what was learned during practice

64
Q

What does coordination dynamics involve?

A

Measurement and observation of movement coordination characteristics
- Transition from the initial movement coordination pattern to the establishment of the new coordination pattern

65
Q

What does Fitts and Posner 3-stage model propose?

A

That learning a motor skill involves 3 stages.

66
Q

What are the 3 stages of Fitts and Posner model?

A

Cognitive
Associative
Autonomous

67
Q

What is Fitts and Posner cognitive stage?

A

Beginner focuses on solving cognitively oriented problems related to what to do and how to do it

68
Q

What is Fitts and Posner associative stage?

A

Person has learned to associate environmental information with required movements to achieve the goal of a skill

69
Q

What is Fitts and Posner autonomous stage?

A

Final stage where performance of the skill is automatic or habitual

70
Q

What is Gentile’s 2-stage model?

A

Initial stages of learning
Later stages of learning

71
Q

How does a learner work to achieve two goals? (Initial stages of learning)

A
  1. Acquire a movement pattern to enable some degree of success in achieving the action goal of the skill
  2. Discriminate between regulatory and nonregulatory conditions in the environment context in which he or she performs the skill
72
Q

What involves the learner working to achieve 3 goals? (later stages)

A
  1. Adapting movement pattern to the demands of any performance situation requiring that skill
  2. Increasing consistency in achieving the goal of the skill
  3. Performing the skill with an economy of effort
73
Q

What are closed skills?

A

Require fixation of movement coordination pattern

74
Q

What are open skills?

A

Require diversification of the basic movement pattern

75
Q

What is Bernstein’s description of the learning process?

A

Proposed that learning a skill was similar to solving a problem
Listened skill acquisition to staging a play, with many phrases
Described appropriate practice as a form of repetition without repetition

76
Q

How does performer and performance change?

A

Changes in movement coordination
- Muscles
- Energy
- Visuals
- Attention
- Error detection
- Brain activity

77
Q

What does a dependence on the sensory feedback develop?

A

It becomes part of an integrated sensory component of the memory representation of the skill

78
Q

What is an expert?

A

A person who is located at the extreme right end of the learning stages continuum

79
Q

What are some distinct characteristics that experts in a skill performance areas have?

A
  1. Amount and type of practice that resulted in expertise
  2. Knowledge structure
  3. use of vision
80
Q

Is expert perofance automated?

A

Experts may not apply fully automated movements

81
Q

What is transfer of learning?

A

Influence of previous experience on learning a new. skill and performing a skill in a new context

82
Q

What are the 3 types of transfer can influence learning?

A

Positive transfer
Negative transfer
Neutral (zero)

83
Q

Why is transfer of learning important?

A

Skill progressions
Effectiveness of practice conditions

84
Q

Why does positive transfer occur?

A

Similarity of skill and context components
Similarity of processing requirements

85
Q

When does negative transfer occur?

A

Environmental context characteristics of 2 performance situation are similar, but the movement characteristics are different

86
Q

What are the 3 main reasons why negative transfer occur?

A

Perception-action coupling
Cognitive confusion
Intrinsic dynamics

87
Q

What is an example of learning how to learn.

A

Successful students navigate their way through high school and inversely by learning meta-strategies to cope with new material

88
Q

What is learning to learn?

A

Learners extract general principles when they practice multiple tasks

89
Q

What is bilateral transfer?

A

Transfer of learning that occurs between two limbs

90
Q

What are the 2 directions of bilateral transfer to consider?

A

Asymmetric transfer
Symmetric transfer

91
Q

What is asymmetric transfer?

A

Greater transfer from one limb than from the other limb

92
Q

What is symmetric transfer?

A

Amount of transfer is similar from one limb to another, regardless of which was used first

93
Q

What are the 2 explainations as to why bilateral transfer occur?

A

cognitive explanation
Motor control explanation

94
Q

What is cognitive explanation?

A

Basis for the positive transfer from a practiced to a non-practiced limb is the important cognitive information related to what to do to achieve the goal of the skill

95
Q

What is demonstration?

A

The terms of modelling and observational learning often are used interchangeably with the term demonstration

96
Q

What does the observer perceive from a demonstration?

A

Observer perceives the invariant relative movement pattern

97
Q

What 2 types of research support demonstration?

A

Investigation of the visual perception of motion
Investigation of the influence of demonstration on learning a complex skill

98
Q

What should be conveyed by a demonstration?

A

Specific to tasks and learner characteristics
Full-body video demonstrations
End-point information
How movement is perceived versus how it is controlled

99
Q

What is Zentgraf et al. study with gymnastics?

A

Observation plus visualization generation activity in the supplementary motor area of the cortex

100
Q

What is gentile’s view on learning has implications for demonstrating a skill?

A
  1. Demonstration should precede practice
  2. Instructor should continue to demonstrate during practice as frequently as necessary
101
Q

What are the 2 primary demonstration theories?

A
  1. Cognitive meditation theory
  2. Dynamic view of modeling
102
Q

What is the cognitive meditation theory?

A

Observed movements are translated into a symbolic memory code that informs the basis that is used to guide performance

103
Q

What is Dynamic view of modeling?

A

The visual system picks up from the model salient information that effectively constrains the body and limbs to act in specific ways

104
Q

What are potential downsides of demonstration?

A

Unlikely that there is an ideal movement
Can subvert the problem solving
Potential dangerous illusion of skill acquisition

105
Q

What are verbal instruction?

A

Means of communicating to people how to perform motor skills

106
Q

What are important factors to consider while developing effective instruction?

A

Quantity of instruction
Memory
Attention limits
Focusing of movement outcomes
Verbal analogies
Focusing attention on invariant environment context

107
Q

What should verbal cues do?

A

Direct performers attention to regulatory conditions in the environmental contest
Key movement component

108
Q

What are the 2 types of performance-related information (feedback)?

A

Task-intrinsic feedback
Augmented feedback

109
Q

What is Task-intrinsic feedback?

A

Sensory information that is naturally available when performing a skill

110
Q

What is Augmented feedback?

A

Performance-related information that is added to task-intrinsic feedback (results, performance)

111
Q

What are the 2 types of augmented feedback?

A

Knowledge of results
Knowledge of performance

112
Q

What is knowledge of results?

A

Externally presented information about the outcome of an attempt to perform a skill

113
Q

What is knowledge of performance?

A

Gives information about the movement characteristics that led to a performance outcome

114
Q

What are the 2 goals of augmented feedback in skill acquisition?

A
  1. Facilitative achievement of the action goal of the skill
  2. Motivates the learner to continue striving toward a goal
115
Q

What are the 5 issues related to augmented feedback content?

A

Errors vs. correct aspects
Results of performance
Qualitative vs. quantitative
Error size
Erroneous

116
Q

What are the 5 types of knowledge performance?

A
  1. Verbal
  2. Manual guidance
  3. Video replay
  4. Movement kinetics
  5. Biofeedback
117
Q

What is concurrent augmented feedback?

A

Augmented feedback is provided while a person is performing a skill

118
Q

What can concurrent augmented feedback do to an athlete?

A

Negative effect on learning
Enhance skill learning

119
Q

What is terminal augmented feedback?

A

Provided after a person has completed the performance of a skill

120
Q

What is the relationship between Knowledge reaction-delay interval and post-knowledge reaction interval?

A

Both require minimum length of time
Engaging in activity during these intervals can hinder, benefit, or have no effect on skill learning

121
Q

What is the traditional view of augmented feedback?

A

Augmented feedback should be given during or after every practice trial, because no learning occurred on trials without augmented feedback

122
Q

What is contemporary view of augmented feedback?

A

Optimal frequency from giving augmented feedback is not 100%

123
Q

What is the guidance hypothesis?

A

Augmented feedback on every trial guides the learner to successful performance, but results in poor learning (the learner becomes dependent which leads to poorer performance)

124
Q

What are techniques that reduce frequency of augmented feedback?

A

Performance-based bandwidths
Self-selected frequency
Summary and average augmented feedback

125
Q

What is practice variability?

A

refers to the variety of movement and context characteristics a person experiences while practicing a skill

126
Q

How can someone implement practice variability?

A

Assess characteristics of the future situations in which the learner will perform a skill

127
Q

What are closed skills?

A

Vary non-regulatory conditions (darts)

128
Q

What are closed skies with inter-trial variability?

A

Vary regulatory and non-regulatory conditions (golf drive)

129
Q

What are open skills?

A

Vary regulatory and non-regulatory conditions (soccer match)

130
Q

What is contextual interference?

A

The memory and performance disruption that results from performing variations of a skill within the context of practice

131
Q

When does contextual interference occur?

A

When a high amount of contextual interference results in better learning

132
Q

What are the characteristics of contextual interference that relates to the limits of the effect?

A

Motor skill characteristics
Learner characteristics

133
Q

What is the challenge point hypothesis?

A

Proposed the implementation of specific practice conditions that will optimally challenge the person in a way that will enhance skill learning

134
Q

What are lower levels of contextual interference used for?

A

Optimal for more difficult skills
Novices and young children

135
Q

What are higher levels of contextual interference used for?

A

Optimal for Skills with the lowest levels of difficulty
Skilled individuals

136
Q

What is the elaboration hypothesis?

A

High CI leads to a more elaborate memory representation of the practiced skill variations

137
Q

What is the action plan reconstruction hypothesis?

A

High amounts of CI leads to stronger memory representation because of forgetting and subsequent action plan reconstruction during practice

138
Q

What is the specificity of practice hypothesis?

A

View that motor skill learning is influenced by practice condition characteristics

139
Q

What 3 characteristics does the practice specificity hypothesis concerns of?

A
  1. Sensory/perceptual
  2. Performance context
  3. Cognitive processing

Motor Learning (3 decks)

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