test 2 Flashcards
(168 cards)
1
Q
Hypnosis
A
a state of consciousness involving changes in perceptions, feelings, thoughts, or behaviors
2
Q
Sleep
A
a state of reduced consciousness characterized by decreased responsiveness to the environment
3
Q
Dreaming
A
a state of consciousness characterized by vivid mental imagery and a sense of detachment from reality
4
Q
Cognitive Neuroscience
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Cognitive neuroscientists study the brain activity linked with our mental processes. They assume that the mind is what the brain does, but the exact mechanism is still unknown.
5
Q
fMRI scans
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can detect increased blood flow to brain regions associated with conscious thinking
6
Q
Brain activity
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can reveal conscious thinking, even in unresponsive patients
7
Q
Selective Attention
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Selective attention is the ability to focus on a specific aspect of our environment while ignoring others.
8
Q
Cocktail party effect
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the ability to attend to one voice in a crowded room
9
Q
Digital distraction
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the tendency to switch attention between multiple tasks, leading to decreased productivity and increased risk of accidents
10
Q
Inattentional Blindness
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Inattentional blindness is the failure to notice visual stimuli outside of our focus.
11
Q
Dual Processing: The Two-Track Mind
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Dual processing refers to the idea that our brain processes information on two independent levels: a conscious, deliberate “high road” and an unconscious, automatic “low road”.
12
Q
Blindsight
A
Blindsight is a phenomenon where people with visual impairments or brain damage can respond to visual stimuli without being consciously aware of them.
13
Q
Unconscious Processing
A
Unconscious processing refers to the idea that much of our brain activity occurs outside of our conscious awareness.
14
Q
Unconcious processing facts
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Research suggests that 80-90% of our brain activity is unconscious.
Unconscious processing is faster than conscious processing, but both are essential for our daily functioning.
15
Q
circadian rhythm
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is our internal biological clock that synchronizes our bodily functions with the 24-hour cycle of day and night
16
Q
suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN).
A
This rhythm is regulated by an area of the brain
17
Q
The circadian rhythm influences our daily functioning in various ways:
A
body temperature
thinking and memory
age and experience
18
Q
REM sleep
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Eugene Aserinsky, who recorded the brain waves and eye movements of his 8-year-old son, Armond, in 1952. This study revealed that REM sleep is characterized by rapid eye movements, increased brain activity, and vivid dreams.
19
Q
Sleep Cycle
A
The sleep cycle is a 90-minute process that involves three stages of non-REM sleep (N1, N2, and N3) followed by a stage of REM sleep. This cycle repeats throughout the night, with each cycle becoming progressively lighter.
20
Q
Diminished Control
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Uses more substance, or for longer, than intended. Tries unsuccessfully to regulate use of substance. Spends much time acquiring, using, or recovering from effects of substance. Craves the substance.
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Q
Diminished Social Functioning
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Use disrupts commitments at work, school, or home. Continues use despite social problems. Causes reduced social, recreational, and work activities.
22
Q
Hazardous Use
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Continues use despite hazards. Continues use despite worsening physical or psychological problems.
23
Q
Drug Action
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Experiences tolerance (needing more substance for the desired effect). Experiences withdrawal when attempting to end use.
24
Q
Tolerance
A
Tolerance occurs when the brain chemistry adapts to offset the drug effect, requiring larger and larger doses to experience the same effect.
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Addiction
Addiction is caused by ever-increasing doses of most psychoactive drugs, prompting the user to crave the drug, continue use despite adverse consequences, and struggle when attempting to withdraw from it.
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Behavioral Addictions 🤯
Behavioral addictions are compulsive and dysfunctional behaviors, such as eating, work, sex, and accumulating wealth, that can become problematic and resemble substance use disorders.
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Depressants
Depressants are drugs that calm neural activity and slow body functions.
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Alcohol
Alcohol is a depressant that can increase (disinhibit) helpful tendencies, such as social bonding, and harmful tendencies, such as sexual aggression.
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Effects of alcohol:
Slows sympathetic nervous system activity
Causes reactions to slow, speech to slur, and skilled performance to deteriorate
Can be life-threatening when heavy drinking follows an earlier period of moderate drinking
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Phrenology
a now-discredited theory that studied bumps on the skull to reveal a person's mental abilities and character traits.
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Franz Gall
German physician who proposed phrenology in the early 1800s.
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The Science of Biological Psychology
use advanced technologies to study the links between biological (genetic, neural, hormonal) processes and psychological processes.
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Biopsychosocial systems
we are composed of biological, psychological, and social-cultural systems that work and interact to shape our behavior.
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Neuroplasticity
the brain's ability to rewire itself as it adapts to experience.
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Neural change
the brain is constantly changing, building new pathways as it adjusts to new experiences.
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Neurons
the building blocks of the neural information system.
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Neural impulse
an electrical signal that travels down the axon.
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Cell body
the life support center of the neuron
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Dendrites
receive and integrate information, conducting it toward the cell body
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Axon
passes the message through its terminal branches to other neurons or to muscles or glands
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Myelin sheath
covers the axon of some neurons and helps speed neural impulses
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How Neurons Communicate
Dendrites listen
Axons speak
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Dendrites listen
receive and integrate information from other neurons.
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Axons speak
pass the message through its terminal branches to other neurons or to muscles or glands.
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How do neuroscientists study the brain's connections to behavior and mind
Early case studies helped localize some brain functions. Damage to one side of the brain often caused numbness or paralysis on the body's opposite side, suggesting that the body's right side is wired to the brain's left side, and vice versa.
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Mapping the Brain
Scientists can selectively lesion (destroy) tiny clusters of normal or defective brain cells, observing any effect on brain function. In the laboratory, such studies have revealed, for example, that damage to one area of the hypothalamus in a rat's brain reduces eating, to the point of starvation, whereas damage in another area produces overeating.
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Localization of Function
the idea that specific brain areas are specialized for specific functions.
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Modern Neuroscience Tools
Neuroscientists can stimulate various brain parts electrically, chemically, or magnetically and note the effect. Depending on the stimulated brain part, people may:
Giggle
Hear voices
Turn their head
Feel themselves falling
Have an out-of-body experience
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Snooping on Neurons
Scientists can even snoop on the messages of individual neurons. With tips small enough to detect the electrical pulse in a single neuron, modern microelectrodes can, for example, now detect exactly where the information goes in a cat's brain when someone tickles its belly.
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New Tools
Optogenetics
Functional Near-Infrared Spectroscopy (fNIRS)
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Optogenetics:
a technique that allows neuroscientists to control the activity of individual neurons by programming them to become receptive to light.
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Functional Near-Infrared Spectroscopy (fNIRS
uses infrared light that shines onto blood molecules to identify brain activity.
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EEG (Electroencephalogram)
a non-invasive technique that measures electrical activity in the brain through electrodes placed on the scalp.
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MEG (Magnetoencephalography)
MEG: a non-invasive technique that records magnetic fields from the brain's natural electrical currents.
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PET (Positron Emission Tomography)
PET: a technique that tracks where in the brain a temporarily radioactive form of glucose goes while the person given it performs a task.
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MRI (Magnetic Resonance Imaging)
MRI: a non-invasive technique that uses magnetic fields and radio waves to provide a map of brain structure.
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fMRI (Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging)
fMRI: a technique that measures blood flow to brain regions by comparing continuous MRI scans.
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Associative Learning
Associative learning is a type of learning in which we link two events that occur close together. This process is also known as conditioning.
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Classical Conditioning
Classical conditioning is a type of associative learning in which we learn to associate two stimuli and thus to anticipate events. This type of learning was first discovered by Ivan Pavlov.
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Stimulus
Any event or situation that evokes a response.
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Response
A reaction to a stimulus.
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Classical Conditioning
type of associative learning in which we learn to associate two stimuli and thus to anticipate events.
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The Process of Classical Conditioning
Acquisition
Extinction
Spontaneous Recovery
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Acquisition
We learn to associate two stimuli.
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Extinction
The association between the two stimuli is broken.
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Spontaneous Recovery
The association between the two stimuli is re-established.
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Operant Conditioning
Operant conditioning is a type of associative learning in which we learn to associate a response (our behavior) and its consequence.
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Response
A reaction to a stimulus.
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Consequence
The outcome of a response.
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Operant Conditioning
A type of associative learning in which we learn to associate a response (our behavior) and its consequence.
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The Process of Operant Conditioning
Reinforcement
Punishment
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Reinforcement
A consequence that follows a response and increases the likelihood of the response occurring again.
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Punishment
A consequence that follows a response and decreases the likelihood of the response occurring again.
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Habit Formation
Habits are automatic responses to specific contexts. We can form habits through repetition and association.
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Habit
An automatic response to a specific context.
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Context
The situation or environment in which a behavior occurs
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Cognitive Learning
Cognitive learning is a type of learning in which we acquire mental information that guides our behavior.
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Observational Learning
Observational learning is a type of cognitive learning in which we learn from others' experiences.
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Behaviorism
Behaviorism is a theoretical perspective that views learning as a process of conditioning.
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Ivan Pavlov
Ivan Pavlov was a Russian physiologist who discovered classical conditioning.
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John B. Watson
John B. Watson was an American psychologist who developed the theory of behaviorism.
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Pavlov's Experiments
Pavlov's experiments on classical conditioning involved training dogs to associate the sound of a bell with the presentation of food.
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Unconditioned Stimulus
stimulus that naturally elicits a response.
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Unconditioned Response
A response that naturally occurs in response to an unconditioned stimulus.
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Conditioned Stimulus
A stimulus that is paired with an unconditioned stimulus to elicit a response.
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Conditioned Response
A response that occurs in response to a conditioned stimulus.
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Operant Conditioning
Operant conditioning is a type of associative learning in which organisms associate their own actions with consequences. Actions followed by reinforcers increase, while those followed by punishments often decrease.
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Associations
Between stimuli (CS and US) Between actions and consequences
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Behavior
Automatic responses to a stimulus Behavior that operates on the environment to produce rewarding or punishing stimuli
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Learning
Associations between events we do not control Associations between our behavior and resulting events
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Skinner's Experiments
B.F. Skinner, a college English major turned psychologist, developed a behavioral technology that revealed principles of behavior control. He used Thorndike's Law of Effect, which states that "rewarded behavior tends to recur, and punished behavior is less likely to recur."
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The Skinner Box
The Skinner box, also known as an operant chamber, is a device that allows researchers to study operant behavior. It consists of a bar or key that an animal presses to release a reward, such as food or water.
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Shaping Behavior
Shaping behavior involves gradually guiding an animal's actions toward a desired behavior. This is done by:
Watching how the animal naturally behaves
Building on existing behaviors
Rewarding successive approximations of the desired behavior
Ignoring all other responses
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Reinforcers
Reinforcers are events that strengthen a preceding response. They can vary with circumstances and among individuals.
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Positive Reinforcement:
strengthens responding by presenting a pleasurable stimulus immediately after a response
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Negative Reinforcement
strengthens responding by removing an aversive stimulus immediately after a response
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Primary Reinforcer
A stimulus that is naturally reinforcing, such as food or water
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Secondary Reinforcer
A stimulus that becomes reinforcing through association with a primary reinforcer, such as money or praise
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Conditioned Reinforcer
A stimulus that becomes reinforcing through association with an unconditioned reinforcer, such as a bell ringing before food is presented
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Biological Limits on Classical Conditioning
Classical conditioning is not as flexible as once thought. Research has shown that an animal's capacity for conditioning is limited by biological constraints. These constraints are influenced by an animal's evolutionary history and species-specific predispositions.
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Preparedness:
The phenomenon where an animal is biologically prepared to learn certain associations that enhance its survival
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Taste Aversion
A type of classical conditioning where an animal learns to associate a particular taste with a negative outcome, such as nausea.
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Taste aversion is an example
of preparedness, where animals are biologically primed to learn to avoid certain tastes that are associated with toxic foods.
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Biological predispositions
The natural tendencies and abilities of an animal that influence its behavior and learning.
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Classical Conditioning
A type of learning in which a neutral stimulus becomes associated with an unconditioned stimulus to elicit an unconditioned response.
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Operant Conditioning
A type of learning in which behavior is modified by its consequences, such as rewards or punishments
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Biological Constraints
The limitations on an animal's capacity for learning and behavior that are influenced by its evolutionary history and species-specific predispositions.
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What is Memory?
Memory is learning that persists over time; it is information that has been acquired and stored and can be retrieved.
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Alzheimer's disease:
a disorder that severely damages the brain, stripping away memory.
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Super-recognizers
individuals with an extraordinary ability to recognize faces.
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Retention Measure
Recall
Recognition
Relearning
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Recall
retrieving information that is not currently in conscious awareness but was learned at an earlier time.
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Recognition
identifying items previously learned.
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Relearning
learning something more quickly when you learn it a second or later time.
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Three-stage information-processing model
a model that likens human memory to computer operations, consisting of:
encoding
storage
retrieval
connectionism
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Encoding
getting information into the brain.
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Storage
retaining that information.
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Retrieval
later getting the information back out.
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Connectionism
a model that views memories as products of interconnected neural networks.
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Neuroplasticity
the brain's ability to change and adapt in response to new experiences.
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Parallel processing
the brain's ability to process multiple things simultaneously.
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Hermann Ebbinghaus's experiments showed
that the more frequently information is repeated, the less time it takes to relearn it.
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Long-term memory
is the permanent storage and retrieval of information over an extended period. The capacity of long-term memory is essentially limitless, with estimates suggesting it is comparable to the storage capacity of the World Wide Web.
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Retaining Information in the Brain
Instead, brain networks encode, store, and retrieve the information that forms our complex memories.
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Explicit memory
refers to conscious memories that are either semantic (facts and general knowledge) or episodic (experienced events).
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Frontal Lobes
Process and store new explicit memories for facts and episodes
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Hippocampus
Acts as a "save button" for explicit memories, processing and temporarily holding the elements of a to-be-remembered episode
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hippocampus located
The hippocampus is a temporal lobe neural structure located in the limbic system. Damage to this structure disrupts the formation and recall of explicit memories.
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Implicit memory
refers to automatic processing of skills and newly conditioned associations.
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Cerebellum
Forms and stores implicit memories created by classical conditioning
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Basal Ganglia
Facilitates formation of procedural memories for skills
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The Amygdala, Emotions, and Memory
Emotions trigger stress hormones that influence memory formation. When we are excited or stressed, these hormones make more glucose energy available to fuel brain activity, signaling the brain that something important is happening.
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amygdala initiates a memory trace
a lasting physical change as the memory forms, that boosts activity in the brain's memory-forming areas.
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Emotional Arousal
Can sear certain events into the brain, while disrupting memory for irrelevant events
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Stress
Provokes the amygdala to initiate a memory trace, boosting activity in the brain's memory-forming areas
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Forgetting
Forgetting is a natural process that occurs when we are unable to recall previously learned information. As William James (1890) noted, "If we remembered everything, we should on most occasions be as ill off as if we remembered nothing."
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The Benefits of Forgetting
- Forgetting allows us to discard useless information, such as where we parked yesterday or our old phone number.
- It helps us to focus on more important information and prevents our minds from becoming cluttered.
- Forgetting is also necessary for learning, as it allows us to update and refine our knowledge
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Solomon Shereshevsky
have exceptional memories that can be both a blessing and a curse.
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memories can be so vivid and detailed
Their memories can be so vivid and detailed that they can be overwhelming and interfere with their daily lives.
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Research has shown that people with exceptional memories often have
enlarged brain areas and increased brain activity in memory centers.
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The Two-Track Mind
The two-track mind refers to the idea that we have two distinct memory systems: explicit and implicit.
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Explicit memory
Explicit memory refers to the conscious recollection of facts and events.
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Implicit memory
Implicit memory refers to the unconscious recollection of skills and habits.
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Case Studies: Molaison and Jimmie
Henry Molaison (H.M.) and Jimmie were two individuals who suffered from anterograde amnesia, which is the inability to form new memories.
Despite their inability to form new memories, they were able to learn new skills and habits through implicit memory.
Their cases demonstrate the existence of two distinct memory systems.
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anterograde amnesia
which is the inability to form new memories.
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Encoding Failure
Encoding failure occurs when we fail to notice or process information, making it impossible to remember.
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how does age affect encoding
Age can affect encoding efficiency, with older adults experiencing slower encoding and age-related memory decline.
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Sensory Memory
Brief storage of sensory information
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Working/Short-Term Memory
Temporary storage of information for processing and encoding
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Long-Term Memory
Permanent storage of information
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Selective Attention
We selectively attend to a small portion of the information that bombards us, ignoring the rest.
This selective attention affects what we encode and remember.
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Just some of the short term effects of typical sleep deprivation
Impaired concentration
Emotional irritability
Depressed immune system
Sleepiness
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Difficulty with impulse control
Behavior problems
Can appear ADHD
Could causality be in the other directions
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Sleep deprivation
One common cause of sleep deprivation is insomnia
25% of people report insomnia
Almost everyone has problem falling and staying asleep once in awhile
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Neuroplasticity
:the ability to change
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Brainstem
Where the spinal cord and brain meet
*Oldest brain region
*Automatic and related to survival
*Consists of the medulla and pons
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Medulla:
Regulates breathing and heartbeat
Reticular Formation:
*Runs through the medulla and pons
*Sleep, attention, movement, reflexes, arousal
Cerebellum:
*Coordinates voluntary movements
*Important for balance and gait
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Thalamus
Sensory information hub
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Limbic System:
*Includes the hippocampus, amygdala and
hypothalamus
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Hypothalamus:
*Controls the four f’s – feeding, fleeing, fighting and reproduction (fornication) via control of the pituitary gland, which releases hormones
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Hippocampus
Learning and memory
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Amygdala
Fear and Aggression
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Cortex
Frontal Lobe
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Aphasia
Language impairment
*Due to left temporal lobe damage
*Inability to speak and/or understand what others say Cerebral
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Cortex: Parietal Lobe
The parietal lobe:
*Touch
*Spatial attention
*Spatial sense
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Spatial Neglect:
*Attention impairment due to damage to right parietal lobe.
*Failure to pay attention to objects in left side of space Model
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Hemisphere
Furthermore, most brain organization is contralateral
*The right hemisphere perceives visual information from the
left field of vision
*The left hemisphere perceives visual information from the
right field of vision
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