Test 2 Flashcards by Jose Sanchez

What is consciousness?

Everything of which we are aware at any given time

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What are circadian rhythms? How do they affect physiological and psychological functioning?

The body’s internal clock
They regulate heartrate, appetite, hormone and enzyme secretion/elimination, body temp., alertness, learning, and moods

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What are the different theories on sleep?

Restorative theory: restore/repair body and mind
Circadian theory: evolutionary trait to keep out of harm’s way during night

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What are the different stages of sleep?

1: wake to sleep
2: light to deeper sleep
3: deeper sleep
4: deepest sleep

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What is sleep deprivation?

Lack of good quality sleep

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How does sleep change throughout the lifespan?

Infants: longest, erratic sleep patterns
6-puberty: stabilization of sleep patterns
Adolescents: sleep patterns influenced by lifestyles
Adults: more time in bed, but less time asleep

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What are parasomnias and dyssomnias?

Parasomnia: behaviors and physiological states that normally occur only in the waking state take place during sleep
Dyssomnia: sleep disorder in which the timing, quantity, or quality of sleep is impaired

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How does dreaming occur?

Prefrontal cortex is suppressed during REM sleep

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What are the different theories of dreams?

Cognitive: thinking while we sleep
Activation-synthesis: random firing of brain cells during REM
Evolutionary: survival/coping mechanism

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What are altered states of consciousness?

temporary change in a person’s mental state

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How do humans alter their state of consciousness?

Getting high, wasted, tripping out, meditation, hypnosis

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What is meditation?

Techniques used to block out distractions and to control physical and psychological problems

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What are psychoactive substances?

Any substance that alters mood, perception, or thought

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How do drugs affect the brain’s neurotransmitter system?

Create a sense of pleasure by increasing availability of dopamine

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What is the difference between substance abuse and substance dependence?

Abuse: continuous use of substance that negatively affects an individual’s life
Dependence: user develops drug tolerance, withdrawal symptoms, cravings, and impulsiveness

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How do stimulants, depressants and hallucinogens affect behavior?

Stimulants: speed up activity in CNS
Depressants: decreases activity in CNS
Hallucinogens: alter perceptions of time and space

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What is learning?

A relatively permanent change in behavior, knowledge, capability, or attitude

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What is classical conditioning?

Learn to associate one stimulus with another

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Any event or objects in the environment to which an organism responds

Stimulus

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Elicits unconditioned response without learning (food, loud noise, light in eye)

Unconditioned stimulus (US)

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Response elicited by an unconditioned stimulus without learning

Unconditioned response (UR)

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Presented shortly before an unconditioned stimulus

Neutral stimulus

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Neutral stimulus that becomes associated with US then elicits a CR

Conditioned stimulus (CS)

A learned response elicited by CS because of repeated pairing with an US

Conditioned response (CR)

Weakening and disappearance of CR because of repeated presentation of CS without US, like forgetting

Extinction

Reappearance of extinguished CR when an organism is exposed to CS following rest period

Spontaneous recovery

What is generalization?

Tendency to make a CR to a stimulus that is similar to the original CS

What is discrimination?

Learned ability to distinguish between similar stimuli

What is a taste aversion?

Intense dislike and/or avoidance of particular foods

What was the "Little Albert" experiment all about?

Watson and Rayner (1920) classically conditioned child to fear a rat

What is operant conditioning?

Consequences of behavior are manipulated modify the frequency of an existing behavior or create a new one

What are consequences?

Effect of a response

What are reinforcement and punishment and when are they used?

Reinforcement: event that serves to strengthen response Punishment: a consequence enacted to eliminate undesired behavior

What are primary and secondary reinforcements?

Primary: reinforcer that fulfills a basic physical need Secondary: reinforcer learned through association with other reinforcers

What are the disadvantages of punishment?

Punishment only suppresses behavior when the punishing agent is present Does not help develop more appropriate behavior Punished often becomes fearful (aggressive) towards punisher

What are schedules of reinforcement?

Systematic process for administering reinforcement which influences the operant conditioning process

What are ratio (fixed/variable) and interval (fixed/variable) schedules?

Ratio: number of occurrences Interval: relate to time, number of times

What other types of learning were discussed? (Cognitive, insight, latent, observational, media)

Cognitive: using mental processes and forming mental representations Insight: "lightbulb" moment Latent: occur until organism is motivated to do so Observational: learning by observing others

Does the media affect aggressive and violent behaviors?

Yes

What is memory?

Includes the encoding, storage, and retrieval of info.

How are memories formed?

Repeated exposure to an experience

What is the process required for remembering?

Encoding, storage, and retrieval of info.

What brain structures are involved in the memory process? What are their primary functions?

Hippocampus: forms episodic memories Cerebral cortex: stores long term memories Amygdala: fight or flight response Basal ganglia: associated with habits and skills Cerebellum: implicit memory related to more control and coordination Prefrontal cortex: working memory

How are computer information processing and human memory similar?

Both encode, store, process and retrieve info; but human memory involve context and emotion

What are the different types of memories systems proposed by Atkinson and Shiffrin? (Sensory, working, and long-term)

Sensory: Large capacity; ~2 sec. Short term: 5-9 items; <30 sec. Long term: unlimited; minutes-lifetime

What are maintenance and elaborative rehearsal?

Maintenance: "shallow" Elaborative: "deep"

What is displacement, chunking?

Displacement: new items push out existing items Chunking: grouping info into larger units

What are the factors that influence/impede memory formation?

Attention and focus Emotional state Sleep Stress and anxiety Repetition and practice Context and environmental cues Nutrition and physical health Age Drugs and alcohol Mental and physical health conditions Motivation

What is the retrieval process and what interferes with this process?

Stimulus aids in retrieving info. from long term memory Primary, Recency, and Context effects

What is the difference between recall and recognition?

Recall: involved access of memory Recognition: identifying familiar material

What is meant by memory being reconstructed?

An event pieced together from a few highlights

What are the various forgetting examples?

Encoding failure Decay Interference Consolidation failure Motivated forgetting Prospective forgetting

What is amnesia?

Partial or complete loss of memory

What types of amnesia discussed?

Anterograde: inability to form long-term memories Retrograde: loss of memory occurring shortly before loss of consciousness Infantile: inability to recall events from first few years

What is dementia?

Neurological disorders in which degenerative processes in the brain diminish people's ability to remember and process info.