Test 2

Question 1

Food is not cultural, but

Answer 1

how different societies go about getting their food is cultural.

Question 2

One of the most fundamental cultural adaptations humans have had to develop in order to survive in diverse environments.

Answer 2

How we get our food

Question 3

The most powerful adaptive strategy for survival

Answer 3

Culture

Question 4

What is the earliest way that is still practiced today by an ever decreasing number of societies?

Answer 4

Food Collection

Question 5

Food Collection

Answer 5

Foraging or Hunting and Gathering

Question 6

Food Production

Answer 6

Actively producing food that didnt exist before
Horticulture
Pastoralism
Intensive Argriculture

Question 7

Horticulture

Answer 7

Growing food using simple tools and methods without permanently cultivating fields (Smallest surplus of foods)

a. Shifting cultivation
b. Managing long growing tree crops such as coconuts

Question 8

Pastoralism

Answer 8

Managing domesticated herds of animals on natural pasture (as the societies’ primary source of food)

Question 9

Intensive Agriculture

Answer 9

Using methods to grow food in one field permanently (most intensive agriculturalists also tend livestock, but not as their primary source of food) (Largest surplus of food)

Question 10

What is the basis of an Economic System?

Answer 10

1. Must collect things
2. Distribution
3. Consumed
   a. After consumed, leads to more production. So it’s a cycle

Question 11

Cultural Universals of Economic Systems

Answer 11

Rules governing access to natural resources

Ways to make resources into goods and services

Rules for distribution of goods

Question 12

What is the primary cultural factor according to which economic systems vary from society to society?

Answer 12

Access to the primary natural resource: land

Question 13

How is access to land regulated in our own society as well as most other societies based on intensive agriculture?

Answer 13

Private Ownership

Question 14

While foragers, horticulturists and pastoralists usually do not privately own land(all in the society have access to the land), do they share everything else as well?

Answer 14

They don’t. Like tools, animals, skills, and services

Question 15

What is labor divided by?

Answer 15

Gender and Age

Question 16

How are goods and services distributed in different societies?

Answer 16

Supply and demand determine the value, which creates a market for distribution

Question 17

Generalized Reciprocity

Answer 17

a. Exchange that doesn’t involve money

b. Giving something without and expectation of something in return

Question 18

Redistribution

Answer 18

When everyone contributes to a central authority and that authority redistributes that stuff to the community. Doesn’t have to be money, can be things and products or goods.

Taxation

Question 19

Market Exchange

Answer 19

tbd

Question 20

Every major cultural system is based on

Answer 20

Generalized Reciprocity

Question 21

Food is the basis for

Answer 21

Every economic system

Question 22

Balanced Reciprocity

Answer 22

Involves exchanges of equal value, but trade without the use of money
Ex. Bartering
Christmas

Question 23

What distinguishes 
market or commercial exchange
from other forms of economic exchange?

Answer 23

The “prices” of exchanges are subject to supply and demand.


Question 24

What about the other side of the economic equation (from production) and how does it vary from society to society?

Answer 24

The smaller society is overwhelmed by market exchange; they are engulfed and surrounded as their entire cultures have.

The other side of the economic equation from production is that consumption varies from society to society

Question 25

Are we more citizens or consumers?

Answer 25

Times have changed, now we are consumers, changing from citizens

Question 26

Stratification

Answer 26

Stratification exists wherever there is differential or unequal access to resources between groups (not individuals).

Question 27

Social Stratification

Answer 27

Systems of social stratification exist wherever there are social groups 
(ex. families, classes, ethnic groups) with unequal access to
 1. economic resources (Wealth)
2. power
3. prestige Societies are stratified by race, religion, gender

Question 28

Egalitarian Society

Answer 28

One in which social groups (not necessarily individuals) have equal access to advantages.

Question 29

What is an ethnographic example of an egalitarian society?
 
What characteristic of their culture is most responsible for their egalitarianism? Why?

Answer 29

Bambooti of the rainforest (The forest people) | How they get their food

Question 30

Rank Societies

Answer 30

Societies which are stratified but not according to access to wealth or power, they are stratified in terms of prestige.

Question 31

What is the bases of social stratification in a rank society (differential access to which societal resource)?

Answer 31

Prestige

Question 32

What is a class? What makes a society a class society?

Answer 32

``` Each group is a class. A group that has relatively equal access to wealth, power, and prestige. 
A class is a category of people in a society who all have about the same access to the resources of that society.

So each class has differential or unequal access to the societies resources - compared to each other, they are stratified. ```

Question 33

What sort of subsistence strategy is most often associated with class societies?
 
Why?

Answer 33

Intensive agriculture. Because it’s the most bountiful and creates the biggest surpluses

Question 34


What about mobility? 

In other words, what about movement between classes…

Answer 34

The ability for individuals to change their class – and thereby gain either greater or lesser access to resources – varies from class society to society and also changes within a class society over time.
 


Question 35

What does it mean for a society to have an open class system?

Answer 35

There is mobility

Question 36


So what is a closed class societies?
 
What is an ethnographic example of a closed class society?

Answer 36


There is not mobility. Caste systems in India are an example. You’re born into your caste and you’re never going to leave it. It is a class that is completely closed.

Question 37

What is slavery?

Answer 37

``` 
Slavery is a class system in which a class of people is created by depriving these persons the ownership of their own labor.
 
In other words, persons who are prevented from owning their own labor are defined as “slaves” and so as long as this situation persists, may be said to belong to a slave class. ```

Question 38

What is “race”?
 
How do we, as Americans, define “race”?
 
What does it have to do with biology?

Answer 38

Race is a category that is highly stratified in every category. Race is a social construct. Social construction of phenotype. It is what you look like, it is not biological. Americans define race as a biological category, even though it is not.

Question 39

Why is “race” not a valid biological construct?

Answer 39


Human phenotypes constitute a continuum of complex biological traits that can only be arbitrarily divided into separate groups or “races”. 
Or as stated in the text, “different populations are not clearly classifiable into discrete groups that can be defined in terms of the presence or absence of particular sets of biological traits.”
 
In other words, the boundaries that are created and used to define any system of racial classification are arbitrary and subjectively based when applied to the human phenotypic continuum (spectrum of physical appearance) as a whole.
 


Racial boundaries only appear objective when different members of the human phenotypic continuum (all of humanity) come life next to each other far from where their ancestors evolved adaptations to very different environments (with different sun intensities, favoring different skin colors, for instance). 


Racial boundaries cannot be objectively identified (only subjectively created through the arbitrary selection and association of certain physical characteristics that are socio-culturally defined as discrete, but that are actually continuous in nature).

Question 40

Does this mean that race does or does no exist?

Answer 40




“Race” is a social construct or category.
 
What does this mean?
 


How is “race” used to reinforce stratification in our society?
 
What do we call the ideology or belief system in which “race” is used to create and reinforce/maintain social stratification?
 


Is “race” used in all societies in the same way to categorize individuals into stratified groups based on their physical appearance or phenotype? 


Question 41

What is ethnicity?

Answer 41

An ethnicity or ethnic group is “a group of people emphasizing common origins and language, shared history, and selected cultural difference such as a difference in religion.”
 Some cultures do not care about ethnicities because they only have one ethnic group. They have old people and they have young people. They have men and they have women. 


Members of a particular ethnicity may or may not have similar phenotypes.
 
Because many members of an ethnic group often do share physical traits, a racial classification is often associated with and used to identify these members of the ethnic group.


Question 42

Psychology and Culture

Answer 42

Psychology is the study of individuals, where anthropology is the study of a culture

Question 43

Do humans in all societies and their cultures develop in the same way psychologically?

Answer 43

No

Question 44

To what extent are different societies/cultures producing different common/typical psychological characteristics/personality traits?

Answer 44

Babies

Question 45

Human development is dependent on a combination of biology and environment (environmental conditioning over time): in other words, nature vs. nurture.

Answer 45

Biology is the same | Environment is really different, which create different levels of socialization – school, culture

Question 46

Socialization/Enculturation

Answer 46

“the development, through direct and indirect influence of parents and others, of children’s patterns of behavior (and attitudes and values) that conform to cultural expectations”

Question 47

How important is human touch to psychological development?

Answer 47

Very. Back in the day it was bad to touch people because of infectious diseases… but now it is known that not holding your baby could lead to SID – sudden infant death syndrome.

Question 48

How might the extent to which cultures hold children affect this and lead to different patterns of behavior? The text gives some examples of patterns of child rearing involving touch that can be relatively easily measured, and therefore compared. What is one example? Let’s consider briefly the work of anthropologist Ashley Montagu and what his work shows about the importance of human touch. Has anyone heard of “The Elephant Man”?

Answer 48

Did not become a homicidal maniac because he had those first few years before he was grotesque where his mother would hold him.

Question 49

Social Scientists use the term "Gender" to

Answer 49

refer to role differences between females and males related to the process of socialization/enculturation (how one is conditioned by one’s society and culture)… In other words, put ‘simply’, gender may be defined as, the socio-cultural constructs that different societies superimpose on the biological differences of sex.

Question 50

Social Scientists use the term "Sex" to

Answer 50

to refer to purely biological differences between females and males.

Question 51

Sexuality refers to

Answer 51

refers ‘simply’ to one’s attraction towards others (members of the other sex/gender or same sex/gender or both) and the resultant behavior…

Question 52

But how is sexuality (sexual attraction and behavior) related to one’s sex and gender? Is there anything ‘simple’ about all this

Answer 52

Remember that culture is about groups, not individuals and all their uniqueness, but it is also about how a society defines and conditions these unique individuals according to categories specific to its culture, that may or may not reflect biological reality to a greater or lesser degree.

Question 53

What is the primary socio-cultural institution used in every society to regulate sexual behavior?

Answer 53

Marriage

Question 54

In foraging societies, who provides most of the substinence?

Answer 54

Women

Question 55

Social Scientists use the term "Sex" to

Answer 55

to refer to purely biological differences between females and males.

Question 56

Sexuality refers to

Answer 56

refers ‘simply’ to one’s attraction towards others (members of the other sex/gender or same sex/gender or both) and the resultant behavior…

Question 57

All societies are stratified by

Answer 57

Age

Question 58

What kind of stratified society to we live in today?

Answer 58

Class

Question 59

In foraging societies, who provides most of the substinence?

Answer 59

Women

Question 60

Surpluses lead to

Answer 60

Big Population which leads to social stratification

Question 61

If livestock is not fed with natural food and grown naturally..

Answer 61

Then it is not pastoralism

Question 62

All human societies have

Answer 62

Economic systems | Because all human societies are based on getting food, which is an economic system

Question 63

Most fundamental reciprocal relationship is between

Answer 63

Babies and caregivers

Question 64

Best place for agriculture?

Answer 64

Temperate Zones

Question 65

Surpluses lead to

Answer 65

Big Population which leads to social stratification

Question 66

If livestock is not fed with natural food and grown naturally..

Answer 66

Then it is not pastoralism

Question 67

All human societies have

Answer 67

Economic systems | Because all human societies are based on getting food, which is an economic system

Question 68

Most fundamental reciprocal relationship is between

Answer 68

Babies and caregivers

Question 69

of the world's societies, mothers typically breast feed for at least two years?

Answer 69

Most

Question 70

Sexually Dimorphic

Answer 70

The two sexes of our species are generally different in size and appearance

Question 71

Strength Theory

Answer 71

Males generally have greater strength and can mobilize strength in quick bursts of energy. Good for hunting, lifting heavy objects, running with great speed

Question 72

Compatibility with Child-Care Theory

Answer 72

Women's tasks need to be compatible with child care Breast feeding, other tasks keep them close to home Explains why men usually do all the hunting fishing and lumbering

Question 73

Economy of Effort Theory

Answer 73

If men lumber, they know more about wood, so they do other wood related things. Gender performs task with things already near them - more economical

Question 74

Expendability Theory

Answer 74

Men do the dangerous work in a society because the loss of men is less disadvantageous reproductively than the loss of women.

Question 75

Primary Subsistence Activities

Answer 75

Gathering Hunting Fishing Herding

Question 76

Secondary Subsistence Activities

Answer 76

Processing or preparation of food or storing

Question 77

Who works more hours? men or women?

Answer 77

Women