Test 2 Flashcards
(178 cards)
1
Q
Capillary Exchange
A
substances moving across the thin capillary walls
2
Q
3 processes of capillary exchange
A
1) Diffusion. 2) Filtration. 3) Reabsorption
3
Q
Diffusion of Capillary Exchange (3 factors)
A
1) steepness of conc gradient. 2) molecular size (smaller = faster). 3) short distances = good diffusion.
4
Q
How do H2O, glucose, and amino acids diffuse across capillary walls
A
the move through endothelial cells of fenestrated capillaries
5
Q
How do ions diffuse across the capillary walls?
A
simple channels (NA+, K+, and Ca2+)
6
Q
How do lipid soluble substances diffuse across the capillary walls?
A
they are non polar and hydrophobic, diffuse across the phospholipid bilayer
7
Q
How do plasma proteins diffuse across capillary walls?
A
Sinusoidal capillaries (Big gaps)
8
Q
Filtration of Capillary Exchange
A
pressure of blood is great enough to push H2O and small solutes across the capillary walls into the interstitial fluid. This is called Capillary Hydrostatic Pressure (CHP), varies from 35 mm of Hg (arterial end) to 18 mm of Hg (venous end). If solutes are small enough then they squeeze through pores in fenestrated capillaries.
9
Q
Reabsorption of Capillary Exchange
A
Occurs due to osmosis, Osmotic pressure is applied to prevent mvmt of H2O across a membrane. Higher conc. gradient = higher pressure. BCOP
10
Q
Blood Colloid Osmotic Pressure (BCOP)
A
blood contains organic molecules that are too large to pass through capillaries so they get “stuck” in blood (plasma proteins) - blood now attracts H2O thru osmosis to balance the gradient. BCOP is 25 mm of Hg throughout the entire capillary
11
Q
Which force pushes out and which pulls in?
A
CHP pushes out, BCOP pulls in.
12
Q
Stages of Filtration
A
1) arterial end CHP is 35 and BCOP is 25 so H2O and solutes are pushed out. 2) venous end BCOP is 25 and CHP is 18 so H2O and solutes are reabsorbed. Filtration force is greater than reabsorption force for most of the capillary so more fluid is lost than is reabsorbed. The rest goes to the lymphatic system.
13
Q
Affectors of CHP and BCOP
A
1) blood loss (hemorrhaging) - lowers blood pressure and CHP, gives us more reabsorption. 2) Dehydration - plasma volume decreases which raises conc. gradient of plasma proteins and BCOP rises, so more reabsorption. 3) If CHP goes up and BCOP goes down, balance shifts and fluid is not reabsorbed = edema (swelling). This is a bruise, capillaries get damaged and plasma proteins are increased, less reabsorption
14
Q
3 regulatory mechanisms of blood flow to tissues
A
helps maintain homeostatic control of B.P. 1) Autoregulation. 2) Neural mechanisms. 3) endocrine mechanisms.
Flow = pressure/resistance
15
Q
Autoregulation
A
causes immediate, localized homeostatic adjustments by controlling pre capillary sphincters (only locally) contains local vasodilators and local vasoconstrictors
16
Q
Local Vasodilators of autoregulation
A
cause precapillary sphincters to relax (open). EX - nitric oxide (NO), increased CO2 or decreased O2, lactic acid indicated the tissue went anaerobic, increased local temp., and chemicals released during inflammation (histamine)
17
Q
Local Vasoconstrictors of autoregulation
A
cause pre capillary sphincters to contract (close). Prostaglandins that are released by damaged tissue, they reduce blood flow. If autoregulation is NOT enough, neural and endocrine step in.
18
Q
Neural Regulation - changes from affecting 3 things
A
1) peripheral resistance (diameter of blood vessels) - biggest. 2) heart rate. 3) stroke volume - amnt of blood pumped out by the L ventricle each and every beat.
19
Q
Cardiac Output (CO)
A
equals heart rate (HR) times stroke volume (SV). This is the total volumes of blood flow per one minute.
20
Q
Neural Regulation in Cardiovascular centers
A
1) cardiac center - one center speeds up the heart and is controlled by the sympathetic N.S. and the other slows down the heart and is controlled by the parasympathetic N.S. 2) vasomotor center - regulates the diameter of arteries by acting through sympathetic motor neurons, small changes have BIG effect on B.P. and resistance.
21
Q
Cardiovascular centers in _______ detect changes in arteries
A
medulla oblongata
22
Q
Changes that the CV centers in the medulla oblongata detect?
A
arterial pH, blood pressure, and dissolved gases
23
Q
Baroreceptors in the CV centers of the medulla
A
receptor that monitors change in blood pressure in various locations of the body. they basically work by detecting the amount of stretch in the walls of vessels. located at the START of the systemic circuit in the aortic arch/carotid sinuses and at the END of the systemic circuit in the vena cava/right atrium
24
Q
Chemoreceptors in the CV centers of the medulla
A
receptors that monitor arterial blood for changes in pH or in pressure of dissolved gases. found in carotid bodies (near carotid sinuses), aortic arch, and ventral surface of the medulla oblongata.
25
If chemoreceptors or baroreceptors detect abnormal conditions, _________________
reflexes are triggered to help restore homeostasis
26
5 components of a reflex
1) Receptor. 2) Sensory neuron. 3) Brain or Spinal cord. 4) motor neuron. 5) effector
27
3 things that would cause chemoreceptors to trigger a reflex. And what is the reflex
rise in CO2 content in arterial blood, fall in blood pH, or fall in O2 content. All will result in heart rate rising and vasoconstriction
28
5 types of hormonal regulation
1) catecholamines. 2) ADH. 3) EPO. 4) Angiotensin II. 5) Natriuretic peptides
29
Catecholamines
E and NE, released into circulation by adrenal medulla. They increase H.R. and vasoconstriction (raises B.P.)
30
Antidiruetic hormone (ADH)
made in hypothalamus but stored in posterior pituitary. related in a response to decrease in blood volumes. Stimulates kidneys to conserve water, stimulate thirst and causes vasoconstriction (maintain blood volume and pressure)
31
Erythropoietin (EPO)
secreted by the kidneys in response to a drop in blood pressure. Stimulates production and maturation of RBCs. Causes an increase in blood volume, viscosity, and O2 carrying capacity.
32
Angiotensin II
produced in lungs in response to a drop in B.P. (helps raise B.P.) Four effects: 1) stimulates adrenal cortex to produce aldosterone (salt retaining hormone). 2) stimulates post. pituitary to release ADH (conserving water). 3) stimulates thirst. 4) stimulates cardiac output and peripheral vasoconstriction
33
Natriuretic peptides
secreted by heart in response to high blood pressure that stretches heart walls. This lowers B.P. by: 1)increasing Na+ excretion by kidneys. 2) increasing urine output (loss of H2O). 3) reducing thirst. 4) stimulating peripheral vasodilation.
34
Functions of Blood
1) transportation. 2) pH balance. 3) Immunity. 4) Limiting blood loss
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Functions of Blood: transportation
1) O2 and CO2. 2) nutrients. 3) waste products. 4) hormones. 5) heat (carries blood close enough to the surface to loose heat)
36
Functions of Blood: pH balance
proteins in blood help to buffer acids and bases
37
Functions of Blood: immunity
1) white blood cells. 2) several roles in inflammation
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Functions of Blood: Limiting blood loss
platelets very important to clotting
39
2 Components of Bloods
Plasma and formed elements
40
Blood Plasma
clear, extra cellular matrix. mostly water but has several solutes. 1) nutrients - sugars, lipids, amino acids. 2) electrolytes - salts like Na+, ESPECIALLY IMPORTANT ON OSMOLARITY OF BLOOD. 3) wastes - especially urine, breaking down proteins and amino acids. 4) gases - O2 and CO2 are carried by RBCs but some by plasma (nitrogen). 5) plasma proteins - produced mainly by liver
41
3 Plasma Proteins
Albumin, Globulins, and Fibrinogen
42
Albumin
60% of all plasma proteins, smallest but most abundant. transports lipids, hydrogens, and calcium. Major contributor in BCOP
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Globulins
36% - many roles in transportation (Copper and iron), immunity (antibodies), and clotting
44
Fibrinogen
4% - a soluble precursor to fibrin - a sticky protein that forms meshwork of a blood clot.
45
serum
fluid that remains after you allow blood to cloth and remove all of the solids
46
Formed elements in Blood
1) erythrocytes - RBCs. 2) leukocytes - WBCs. 3) platelets. All three of these start out as a hemopoietic stem cell. Some even differentiate into a specialized cell called a colony forming unit (CFU)
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Major Function of Erythrocytes
obtain O2 from the lungs and transport it to the tissues to obtain CO2 from the tissues and transport it to the lungs
48
Structures of Erythrocytes: 1st 4
1) disc shape w/ sunken center and thick rim. 2) TINY - only 7.5 micrometers in diameter, due to size and shape it has an enormous surface area to volume ratio, quick diffusion of gases. 3) a nucleate - so no mitosis (cannot divide). 4) lack almost organelles, no mitochondria so anaerobic respiration..this is good because otherwise the RBC's would use the oxygen they are supposed to be carrying for us.
49
Structure of Erythrocytes: 2nd 4
5) cytoskeleton includes the proteins spectrin and actin, they increase the plasma membranes flexibility and durability (so RBcs can squeeze and fold thru capillaries. 6) gylcoproteins and glycolipids attach to surface of the cell membrane and determine the blood type. 7) red in color because cytoplasm has hemoglobin (a red colored protein that binds to oxygen. 8) cytoplasm also has carbonic anydrase (pH and gas transport) pH btwn 7.35 and 7.45
50
Hemoglobin
large protein that consists of 4 peptide chains (2 alphas and 2 betas). Each chain is joined to a heme group which is a ring of carbon, hydrogen, and nitrogen around a central ferrous iron (Fe2+)
51
What happens when O2 meets Fe2+?
O2 binds with Fe2+ and therefore each hemoglobin can bind up to 4 O2. The binding is reversible so the Hb picks up O2 in the lungs but unloads it in the tissues
52
fetal hemoglobin
the fetus has different hemoglobin, it has a different amino acid sequence which binds to O2 more tightly and helps the embryo obtain the oxygen from its mother.
53
Iron absorption and storage
ferrous iron, Fe2+, is essential for the Hb synthesis. foods contain a mixture of both Fe2+ and Fe3+ (ferric), but we can't use Fe3+ so our stomach acids break it down into ferrous iron.
54
Ferrous irons path from stomach on....
Fe2+ binds with gastroferritin (protein made in stomach). Gastroferritin transports the Fe2+ to the small intestine where the iron is absorbed into the blood. Once in the blod the Fe2+ binds to a plasma protein called transferring (moves the iron). Transferrin transports some ferrous iron to the liver for storage (stored as ferritin) and the rest of the iron is sent to the red bone marrow and skeletal muscles to make hemoglobin or myoglobin
55
RBC life cycle (production)
aka erythropoiesis, is stimulated by the kidney hormone, erythropoietin (EPO). 1) as with all the formed elements, it begins with a hemopoietic stem cell, this transforms in the case into an erythrocyte colony forming unit. EPO then binds to receptors on the surface of the erythrocyte colony forming units and stimulates it to transform into an erythroblast. Erythroblasts then multiply, make hemoglobin, discharge their nuclei, and mature into erythrocytes.
56
What controls RBC's numbers?
controlled by a negative feedback loop driven by hypoxemia. 1) kidneys detect hypoxemia (too little O2 in the blood) and increase their secretion of EPO. 2) the increased EPO stimulates increased RBC's production which in turn enables the blood to carry more oxygen.
57
Time of an RBC life
they live and circulate for up to 4 months. Gradually spec tin breaks down and the cell can't replace it (no nucleus). Thus an RBC becomes more fragile, more elastic and breaks apart, especially at the spleen or liver (sinusoidals). Macrophages (special WBCs) in the liver and spleen ingest and recycle the fragments of the RBCs membranes
58
Hemoglobin breakdown
especially important because if not properly broken down, it can become lodged into the kidneys and stop the kidneys from functioning. Broken down into globin and heme parts by macrophages. Then globin part is further degraded into individual amino acids. The heme is broken down into ferrous iron, Fe2+, and organic components.
59
Transferrin's role in hemoglobin
takes the iron to the red bone marrow to make new hemoglobin or to the liver for storage as ferritin
60
Bilirubin
organic molecules become bilirubin, 1) macrophages release bilirubin into the blood where it binds to the albumin. 2) liver takes up the bilirubin and secretes it into the bile. 3) gall bladder discharges the bile into small intestine. 4) in the small intestine, bacteria converts bilirubin to urobilinogen. 5) urobilinogen excreted w/ the feces (gives it its brown color)
61
Jaundice
yellowing of the skin from high bilirubin
62
Why is the amnt of RBCs important?
important to determine how much O2 your blood can carry, lower in women than in men. 1) androgens stimulate RBCs and 2) menstrual blood loss.
63
hematocrit
the percent of blood volume composed of RBCs. Males (42-52%) Females (37-48%)
64
hemoglobin concentration
g/dL: Males 16, females 14
65
RBC count
Males: 5.5 million, females: 4.8 million
66
Where do Leukocytes occur?
1) in the blood they are least abundant of the formed elements. 2) much higher numbers in the connective tissue, only zoned a few hours in the blood, then migrate through the capillary walls to live in connective tissues.
67
Leukocytes structure
1) have an obvious, often complex-shaped nucleus. 2) have all the usual organelles (lysosomes - especially important to the immune function)
68
5 Classes of Leukocytes that vary in abundance
"Never Let Monkeys Eat Bananas" 1) Neutrophils (Most abundant). 2) Lymphocytes. 3) Monocytes. 4) Eosinophils. 5) Basophils (least abundant)
69
Neutrophils
by far the most abundant in blood (65%), 3 to % lobed nucleus, medium size, functions to ingest bacteria (phagocytosis) and increased numbers of neutrophils maybe a sign of BACTERIAL infection
70
Eosinophils
not very common in blood (2-4%) but abundant in mucous membrane. Nucleus has 2 lobes connected by a thin strand, medium size dumbbell shape. lots of granules, clean up bacteria from air we breath. Release chemicals that weaken large parasites, thus increases in numbers in PARASITIC infections, numbers fluctuate greatly with day, season, menstral cycle.
71
Basophils
rarest in circulating blood, nucleus is hidden by extremely abundant, dark staining granules. Small-medium size, secretes 2 chemicals: histamine (a vasodilator that increase permeability of blood vessels) and Heparin (an anticoagulant that prevents clots. These help WBCs to leave blood vessels.
72
Lymphocytes
seconds most common WBC in the blood, obvious nucleus that is round-oval-dimpled, with a mostly clear cytoplasm. This includes the smallest WBCs but can be large in small lymphocytes, nucleus fills most of the cell. Many diverse functions: secrete antibodies, immunological memories, destroy cancerous cells, destroy cells infected with virus.
73
Monocytes
(3-8%) large oval or horseshoes shaped nucleus, lots of visible, mostly clear cytoplasm. The largest WBCs, numbers increase in response to VIRAL infections and inflammation. Upon entering the tissues, they differentiate in macrophages (even larger, highly phagocytotic cells which room throughout our tissues and destroy pathogens or damaged cells.
74
WBC life cycle
some process as w/ RBC (hemopoietic stem cells differentiate in CFU's which give rise to specific WBCs). During infections lymphocytes and macrophages release chemical signals which stimulate certain CFUs so that the appropriate types of WBCs are produced in increased numbers. Bacterial infections trigger an increase in neutrophils...Parasitic infections trigger an increase in eosinophils. Red Bone marrow stores lots of WBCs and some mature there, some also mature in thymus gland. Once mature, they colonize in the spleen and lymph nodes.
75
Platelets
fragments of cells important in the clotting process, second most common formed element in the blood.
76
Platelet structure
1) even though they are fragments, they have a complex internal structure w/ numerous organelles. 2) annucleate. 3) capable of amoeboid mvmt.
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Platelet functions
1) secrete vasoconstrictors which cause smooth muscles to contract. 2) stick together and form a platelet plug to seal breaks in small vessels. 3) secrete clotting factors. 4) help form an enzyme that eventually dissolves the clot. 5) secret chemicals that attract certain WBCs to inflammation sites. ^) ingest bacteria. 7) secrete growth factors to encourage mitosis in fibroblasts and smooth muscles to help maintain/repair blood vessels.
78
Platelet Formation
1) like other formed elements of the blood, they have their beginnings in hemopoietic stem cells in marrow. 2) instead of developing CFUs, the stem ell develops into megakaryocytic (make copies of DNA and matures into megakaryocytic (HUGE compared to WBCs). 3) bits of cytoplasm/plasma membrane are broken off to form platelets. A) most circulate in blood and live for 10 days. B) others are stored in the spleen and released when needed.
79
Hemostasis: blood clotting
1) Vascular phase. 2) Platelet phase. 3) Clotting phase
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Vascular phase of Clotting
cutting the blood vessel wall, stimulates the smooth muscle in the wall to contract.
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Platelet phase of Clotting
platelets plug formation - platelets begin sticking together to the exposed surfaces of the injured vessel, also stick to each other to form the platelet plug. as platelets aggregate, they release several chemicals that aid in the clotting process as all as repair process.
82
Blood clotting phase of Clotting
2 major pathways for clots to form: extrinsic and intrinsic.
83
Extrinsic pathway of clotting
the first clotting factor called THROMBOPLASTIN (Factor III) is released by tissues outside of the blood
84
Intrinsic pathway of clotting
the first clotting factor, called factor XII, is released by platelets.
85
Where are most clotting factors produced?
produced in the liver and released into the blood in an inactive form. When activated, its an enzyme that activates the next clotting factor and thus starts a reaction cascade. Over a dozen clotting factors are involved including calcium, each step involves amplification which helps the blood clot quickly.
86
Last step in clotting factors
eventually the clotting factors form thrombin, an enzyme that cuts the plasma protein FIBRINOGEN into short pieces of FIBRIN. fibrin fibers stick to the walls of the broken vessels, RBCs and platelets get caught and stuck in the web of fibrin which forms a clot.
87
Repair of Blood Vessels
endothelial cells and platelets release platelet-derived growth factors (PDGF), this stimulates mitosis of fibroblasts and smooth muscle cells and thus repairs the broken vessels.
88
Clot Breakdown
after the tissue has repaired itself, the enzyme PLASMIN gradually dissolves the clot by digesting fibrin (active form of plasminagin)
89
Clotting Disorders
whats a heredity disease in which blood doesn't clot normally due to a deficiency of a clotting factor? Hemophelia - due to lack of factor 8)
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Thrombosis
abnormal formation of a clot (thrombus), if it breaks apart and travels in circulation it becomes an EMBOLUS, this can lead to strokes or infarctions. More likely in veins than arteries because of slower blood flow and more likely in inactive patients.
91
Clotting problems may occur due to....
secondary effect of liver disease: the liver makes most of the clotting factors, BILE - produced in the liver and stored in the gall bladder, is essential to the uptake of vitamin K which is crucial in many clotting factors.
92
Lymphatic System
returns excess fluid lost from capillaries back to the C.V. system. this plays a major role in defending the body against pathogens and cancerous cells. It also helps absorb the lipids from the small intestine via lacteals. Major cells are lymphocytes
93
Other systems that are crucial to the immune system
integumentary system, digestive system, and respiratory system
94
Components of the Lymphatic system
Lymph, lymphatic vessels (lymphatics), lymphoid tissues, lymphoid organs, and lymphocytes
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Lymph
a fluid like plasma but with relatively few suspended proteins
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Lymphatic vessels
vessels that start at tissues and connect to veins. 1) lymphatic capillaries - smallest vessels, lined with endothelial cells but have thin walls, fluid can enter lymphatics but not leak back into into tissues, drain into larger and larger lymphatics. 2) similar to veins, larger lymphatics contain 1 way valves. 3) larger lymphatics join to lymphatic trunks which empty into 1 of 2 places.
97
Thoracic duct
collects lymph from inferior body and upper left side (drains into the L subclavian.
98
Right Lymphatic duct
collects lymph from upper R side and drains into the R subclavian
99
Elephantasis
a tropical disease caused by blockage of the lymphatics, mosquito bites deliver the parasitic roundworms.
100
Lymphoid tissues
connective tissues (often aerolar) dominated by the lymphocytes, scattered throughout the body but obvious in the tonsils and digestive systems.
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tonsils
usually several in walls of the throat, 1 pair of palatine tonsils, several lingual tonsils (base of tongue), and 1 sinlge pharyngeal tonsil (adenoid)
102
digestive system
clusters occur deep in the interstitial lining, in walls of the appendix - blind pouch near where small and large intestines meet.
103
Lymphoid organs (3)
lymph nodes, thymus, and spleen
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lymph nodes
scattered throughout the body, abundant in neck, armpits, groin. Vary in size, essential function like a water filter that purify the lymph before it enters the venous blood supply. EX macrophages in the lymph nodes "grab" onto pathogens and then present them to lymphocytes for destrcution
105
Thymus
produces hormones that stimulate production and maturation of different types of T-cells. relative to body size (largest in infants and smallest in elderly) Lymphocytes: Bcells, Tcells, and NKcells
106
Spleen
largest single collection of lymphoid tissue in the adult body.
107
Functions of the Spleen
1) remove old or damaged RBCs. 2) stores some iron (recycles from RBCs). 3) detect pathogens in blood and helps initiate immune response by B and T cells
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Anatomy of Spleen
lies anterior and lateral tot he stomach on L side and lateral to L kidney, consists of Red and White pulp
109
Red pulp
mostly RBCs and macrophages, macrophages attach to the internal skeleton made of reticular fibers. As infected or damaged cells flow by, macrophages "pluck" them out of circulation and alter the lymphocytes
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White Pulp
lymphoid tissues (mostly lymphocytes)
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Spleen Facts
works must like a lymph node but with blood instead of lymph. Spleen in fragile nd tears easily which leads to bleeding, difficult to repair since sutures don't hold, and maybe removed = splenectomy but person will be more susceptible to bacterial infections
112
Lymphocytes
types of WBCs, to combat pathogens, lymphocytes must be able to detect problems and reach the site of injury or infection, thus WBCs circulate in the blood. they can readily leave the capillaries and enter tissues of the body. 3 classes of lymphocytes circulate in the blood: T cells, B cells, and NK cells
113
T cells
thymus dependent (80% of all lymphocytes)
114
B cells
bone marrow dependent (10-15% of lymphocytes). antibodies bind to antigens which are specific chemicals (proteins) on pathogens, this marks pathogens for destruction
115
NK cells
natural killers. attack foreign bodies, normal body cells infected with viruses, and cancer cells. They "roam" the tissues on immunological surveillance.
116
Production of Lymphocytes
produced by red bone marrow. 1) 1 type of stem cell produces daughter cells that mature into B cells and NK cells, B cells migrate to lymph nodes and spleen and NK cells migrate through out the body on patrol. 2) Another type of stem cells migrate to thymus which secrete several hormones called thymosins, they stimulate stem cells to produce T cells which migrate to the spleen
117
Nonspecific Defenses (7)
help defend against invasion in general and respond the same regardless of the threat, opposed to acting against a specific pathogen, innate defenses because they are present from birth. 1) external barriers. 2) Phagocytes. 3) Immunological surveillance. 4) Complement proteins. 5) Interferons. 6) Inflammation. 7) Fever
118
External Barriers
1) skin - multiple layers of integument make it harder for pathogens to invade, sebaceous and sweat glands secrete antimicrobial chemicals (sebum dermincidin) 2) mucous membranes - sticky mucus traps pathogens, mvmt of mucus helps flush pathogens away. Lysozome = enzyme found in saliva, mucus, and tears - that attack cells walls and bacteria
119
Phagocytes
neutrophils, eosinophils, monocytes, and macrophages. 1st line of cellular defense, some roma throughout the body and others are fixed permanently in the lymph nodes and spleen. After they ingest a pathogen its destroyed w/ a lysosome.
120
Immunological surveillance
NK cells constantly monitor the tissues for abnormal cells. Abnormal cells usually have abnormal protein on their surface and NK cells are vesatile so they attack bacteria, virus infected, and cancerous cells. They destroy pathogens upon contact and act more quickly than T or B cells. Work quickly by secreting proteins (perforins) into pathogen membranes
121
perforins
create pores in the membrane which cause it to lyse (split)
122
Complement proteins
plasma contains about 11 different antimicrobial proteins, they lyse microbes by forming a MAC that create pores in the bacterial membrane, attract phagocytes (neutrophils and macrophages), stimulate inflammation
123
Interferons
small proteins released by activated lymphocytes and macrophages and by cells infected with viruses, function as hormones that bind to cell membranes and receptors of normal cells. Causes these cells to produce antiviral proteins which prevent viruses from replicating
124
Inflammation
local swelling, increased blood flow, heat, pain. This attracts neutrophils to the area which brings other WBCs, increased local temps accelerate the activity of phagocytes and enzymes.
125
Fever
maintaining a body temp greater than 99 degrees, macrophages release pryogens - circulating proteins that can reset the thermostat in the hypothalamus. If not too high, high body temp is good: 1) raises our metabolism which maybe get immune system working faster and 2) may inhibit some viruses and bacteria.
126
Specific Defenses
immune system aims at a specific target, usually called an immune response, lymphocytes provide a specific defense
127
4 Features of Characterize Immune Response
1) specificity. 2) versaltility. 3) Tolrance. 4) Memory
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Specificity
host produces antibodies or T-cells that are specific to each antigen, occurs because each T or B cell has receptors that bind to only one specific antigen
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Versatility
ability to respond to a huge diversity of invaders 1) versatility arises in part from the huge diversity of different antibodies we can produce. 2) large numbers of different types of lymphocytes (contain millions of lymphocytes but only thousands of each tip, when antigen gets activated, copies of a specific lymphocyte are made"clone army"
130
Tolerance
the immune system doesn't respond to all antigens, some it tolerates especially those that it recognizes as part of itself. As lymphocytes mature in bone marrow (B cells) or the thymus (T cells) some react to self antigens, they are destroyed before replicating.
131
Memory
after responding to a particular pathogen once, the immune system remembers. Due to activated lymphocytes (B or T cells) producing two types of daughters : active cells and memory cells
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Active cells of Lymphocytes
attack the antigen right away, B cells produce plasma cells which make antibodies, may only live a few days
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Memory cells of Lymphocytes
cells that remain inactive until exposed tot he same pathogen in the future.
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2 Interactive Immune Responses
Antibodies-mediated immunity (B cells) and Cell-mediated immunity (T cells)
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Antibody-mediated immunity
B cells defend against pathogens in body fluids, advantage is antibodies can be widely distributed and attack pathogens wherever it occurs, some T cells help (helper T cells) by stimulating the B cells to start working
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Cell-mediated immunity
T cells defending against abnormal cells and pathogen, antibodies don't help if cells are infected because they can't cross phospholipid bilayers.
137
Fomrs of Immunity
Innate immunity and Acquired immunity
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innate immunity
genetically determined, doesn't require prior exposure to antigen, humans are naturally resistant to may pathogens (7 nonspecific defenses)
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Acquired Immunity
not present at birth, became immune to a specific antigen only after being exposed.
140
Types of Acquired Immunity
Active and Passive
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Active acquired immunity
the body responds to an antigen by making its own antibody, often develops after natural exposure to pathogens throughout our lives, could be produced via vaccine
142
Passive acquired immunity
produced by transfer of antibodies from another person (placenta or breast milk) or injection. Could be treated with anti venom, fragment sod antibodies collected from a host.
143
Serum is blood plasma minus its ___________
clotting proteins
144
What contributes to the viscosity of blood?
erythrocytes
145
Which is a granulocyte?
eosinophil
146
Excess iron is stored in the liver as a complex called _________
ferritin
147
The percentage of blood volume composed of RBCs is called ________
hematocrit
148
The extrinsic pathway of coagulation is activated by ______ from damaged perivascular tissues
thromboboplastin
149
The hereditary lack of factor VII causes a disease called _________
hemophelia
150
The overall cessation of bleeding, involving several mechanisms is called __________
homeostasis
151
_____________ results from a mutation that changes one amino acid in the hemoglobin molecule
Sickle cell disease
152
The kidney hormone __________ stimulates RBC production
erythropoietin
153
By volume, the blood usually contains _________ plasma than blood
more
154
A _______ in the albumin concentration of the blood would tend to increase blood pressure
increase
155
O2 deficiency is the result of ________
anemia
156
________ is a mechanism of hemostasis but include platelets plugs and vascular spasms
Clotting (coagulation)
157
_______ are the most abundant WBCs
neutrophils
158
_____ ions are required for blood clotting
Calcium
159
________ is excreted when RBCs die and _______ is broken down into amino acids to be recycled
Heme, Globin
160
__________ in an excess of WBCs
Leukemia
161
Which is involved in nonspecific resistance but not in adaptive immunity?
NK cells
162
Whats the order of events in humoral immunity?
endocytosis of an antigen, antigen display, secretion of interleukin, colonial selection, and antibody secretion
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Cardiac signs od inflammation include all except_______
fever
164
A helper T cell can bind only to another cell that has _________
MHC II proteins
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Any substance of organism capable of causing a disease is a __________
pathogen
166
Mecous membranes contain an antibacterial enzyme called _________
lysozome
167
Any substance that triggers a fever is called a ________
pyrogen
168
Chemical signals produced by leukocytes to stimulate other leukocytes are called ________
interleukins
169
Any disease in which antibodies attack one own tissues is called an __________
autoimmune disease
170
Lysozome is a ________
bacterial killing enzyme
171
Where do T lymphocytes mature?
Thymus
172
Interferons ________ inflammation
promote
173
What is involved in both cell-mediated immunity and humoral immunity?
Helper T cells
174
Where does white pulp get its color?
lymphocytes and macrophages
175
Perforins are involved in what?
nonspecific resistance and cellular immunity
176
What secretes histamine and herapin?
basophils and mast cells
177
What do interferons do?
inhibit viral infections
178
What do performs do?
lyse bacteria
