Test 2 Flashcards
(131 cards)
1
Q
Explicit memory
A
Memory that clearly and distinctly expresses (explicates) specific information.
2
Q
Episodic memory
A
Memories of events experienced by a person or that take place in the person’s presence.
3
Q
Semantic memory
A
General knowledge, as opposed to episodic memory.
4
Q
Implicit memory
A
Memory that is suggested (implied) but not plainly expressed, as illustrated in the things that people do but do not state clearly.
5
Q
Priming
A
The activation of specific associations in memory, often as a result of repetition and without making a conscious effort to access the memory.
6
Q
Retrospective memory
A
Memory for past events, activities, and learning experiences, as shown by explicit (episodic and semantic) and implicit memories.
7
Q
Prospective memory
A
Memory to perform an act in the future, as at a certain time or when a certain event occurs.
8
Q
Encode
A
Modifies information so that it can be placed in memory; encoding is the first stage of information processing.
9
Q
Storage
A
The maintenance of information over time; the second stage of information processing.
10
Q
Maintenance rehearsal
A
Mental repetition of information to keep it in memory.
11
Q
Elaborative rehearsal
A
The kind of coding in which new information is related to information that is already known.
12
Q
Retrieval
A
The location of stored information and its return to consciousness; the third stage of information processing.
13
Q
Memory
A
The processes by which information is encoded, stored, and retrieved.
14
Q
Sensory memory
A
The type or stage of memory first encountered by a stimulus; sensory memory holds impressions briefly, but long enough so that series of perceptions are psychologically continuous.
15
Q
Memory trace
A
An assumed change in the nervous system that reflects the impression made by a stimulus.
16
Q
Icon
A
A mental representation of a visual stimulus that is held briefly in sensory memory.
17
Q
Iconic memory
A
The sensory register that briefly holds mental representations of visual stimuli.
18
Q
Eidetic imagery
A
The maintenance of detailed visual memories over several minutes.
19
Q
Echo
A
A mental representation of an auditory stimulus (sound) that is held briefly in sensory memory.
20
Q
Echoic memory
A
The sensory register that briefly holds mental representations of auditory stimuli.
21
Q
Short-term memory
A
The type or stage of memory that can hold information for up to a minute or so after the trace of the stimulus decays; also called working memory.
22
Q
Working memory
A
Another term for short-term memory.
23
Q
Serial-position effect.
A
The tendency to recall more accurately the first and last items in a series.
24
Q
Chunk
A
A stimulus or group of stimuli that are perceived as a discrete piece of information.
25
Displace
In memory theory, to cause information to be lost from short-term memory by adding new information.
26
Long-term memory
The type or stage of memory capable of relatively permanent storage.
27
Repression
In Freud's psychodynamic theory, the ejection of anxiety-evoking ideas from conscious awareness.
28
Schema
A way of mentally representing the world such as a belief or an expectation, that can influence perception of persons, objects, and situations.
29
Tip of the tongue (TOT) phenomenon
The feeling that information is stored in memory although it cannot be readily retrieved; also called the feeling of knowing experience.
30
Context-dependent memory
Information that is better retrieved in the context in which it was encoded and stored, or learned.
31
State-dependent memory
Information that is better retrieved in the physiological or emotional state in which it was encoded and stored, or learned.
32
Nonsense syllables
Meaningless sets of two consonants, with a vowel sandwiched in between, that are used to study memory.
33
Paired associates
Nonsense syllables presented in pairs in experiments that measure recall.
34
Interference theory
The view that we may forget stored material because other learning interferes with it.
35
Retroactive interference
The interference of new learning with the ability to retrieve material learned previously.
36
Proactive interference
The interference by old learning with the ability to retrieve material learned recently.
37
Dissociative amnesia
Loss of memory of personal information that is thought to stem from psychological conflict or trauma
38
Infantile amnesia
Inability to recall events that occur prior to the age of three or so; also termed childhood amnesia.
39
Hippocampus
A structure in the limbic system that plays an important role in the formation of new memories.
40
Anterograde amnesia
Failure to remember events that occurred after physical trauma because of the effects of the trauma.
41
Retrograde amnesia
Failure to remember events that occurred prior to physical trauma because of the effects of the trauma.
42
Cognition
Mental activity involved in understanding, processing, and communicating information.
43
Thinking
Paying attention to information, mentally representing it, reasoning about it, and making decisions about it.
44
Concept
A mental category that is used to class together objects, relations, events, abstractions, ideas, or qualities that have common properties.
45
Prototype
A concept of a category of objects or events that serves as a good example of the category.
46
Exemplar
A specific example
47
Algorithm
A systematic procedure for solving a problem that works invariably when it is correctly applied.
48
Heuristics
Rules of thumb that help us simplify and solve problems.
49
Mental set
The tendency to respond to a new problem with an approach that was successfully used with similar problems.
50
Insight
In Gestalt psychology, a sudden perception of relationships among of the mentally represented elements of the problem that permits its solution.
51
Incubation
In problem-solving, a process that may sometimes occur when we stand back from a frustrating problem for a while and the solution "suddenly" appears.
52
Functional fixedness
The tendency to view an object in terms of its name or familiar usage
53
Representativeness heuristic
A decision-making heuristic in which people make judgments about samples according to the populations they appear to represent
54
Availability heuristic
A decision-making heuristic in which our estimates of frequency or probability of events are based on how easy it is to find examples.
55
Anchoring and adjustment heuristic
A decision-making heuristic in which a presumption or first estimate serves as a cognitive anchor; as we receive additional information, we make adjustments but tend to remain in the proximity of the anchor.
56
Framing effect
The influence of wording, or the context in which information is presented, on decision making.
57
Language
The communication of information by means of symbols arranged according to rules of grammar
58
Semanticity
The quality of language in which words are used as symbols for objects, events, or ideas.
59
Infinite creativity
The capacity to combine words into original sentences.
60
Displacement
The quality of language that permits one to communicate information about objects and events in another time and place
61
Linguistic-relativity hypothesis
The view that language structures the way we view the world
62
Holophrase
A single word used to express complex meanings
63
Overregularization
The application of regular grammatical rules for forming inflections (e.g., past tense and plurals) to irregular verbs and nouns
64
Psycholinguistic theory
The view that language learning involves an interaction between environmental factors and an inborn tendency to acquire language.
65
Emotion
A state of feeling that has cognitive, physiological, and behavioral components.
66
Autonomic nervous system
The division of the peripheral nervous system that regulates glands and activities such as heartbeat, respiration, digestion, and dilation of the pupils.
67
Sympathetic nervous system
The branch of the autonomic nervous system that is most active during processes that spend body energy from stored reserves, such as in a fight-or-flight reaction to a
68
Emotion
A state of feeling that has cognitive physiological, and behavioral components.
69
Autonomic nervous system (ANS)
The division of the peripheral nervous system that regulates glands and activities such as heartbeat, respiration, digestion, and dilation of the pupils.
70
Sympathetic nervous system
The branch of the autonomic nervous system that is most active during processes that spend body energy from stored reserves, such as in a fight or flight reaction to a predator or when you are anxious about a big test.
71
Parasympathetic nervous system
The branch of the autonomic nervous system that is most active during processes that restore reserves of energy to the body, such as relaxing and eating.
72
Positive psychology
The field of psychology that is about personal well-being and satisfaction; joy, sensual pleasure, and happiness; and optimism and hope for the future.
73
Facial-feedback hypothesis
The view that stereotypical facial expressions can contribute to stereotypical emotions.
74
Zygote
A fertilized ovum (egg cell)
75
Germinal stage
The first stage of prenatal development, during which the dividing mass of cells has not become implanted in the uterine wall.
76
Amniotic sac
A sac within the uterus that contains the embryo or fetus
77
Placenta
A membrane that permits the exchange of nutrients and waste products between the mother and her developing child but does not allow the maternal and fetal bloodstreams to mix
78
Umbilical cord
A tube between the mother and her developing child through which nutrients and waste products are conducted.
79
Object permanence
Recognition that objects removed from sight still exist, as demonstrated in young children by continued pursuit.
80
Sensorimotor stage
The first of Piaget's stages of cognitive development, characterized by coordination of sensory information and motor activity, early exploration of the environment, and lack of language.
81
Preoperational stage
The second of Piaget's stages, characterized by illogical use of words and symbols, spotty logic, and egocentrism.
82
Egocentrism
According to Piaget, the assumption that others view the world as one does oneself.
83
Conservation
According to Piaget, recognition that basic properties of substances such as weight and mass remain the same when superficial features change.
84
Concrete operational change
Piaget's third stage, characterized by logical thought concerning tangible objects, conservation, and subjective morality.
85
Decentration
Simultaneous focusing on more than one dimension of a problem, so that flexible, reversible thought becomes possible.
86
Attachment
The enduring affectional tie that binds one person to another.
87
Contact comfort
A hypothesized primary drive to seek physical comfort through contact with another.
88
Ethologist
A scientist who studies the characteristic behavior patterns of species of animals.
89
Critical period
A period of time when an instinctive response can be elicited by a particular stimulus.
90
Imprinting
A process occurring during a critical period in the development of an organism, in which that organism responds to a stimulus in a manner that will afterward be difficult to modify.
91
Authoritative parents
Parents who are strict and warm; authoritative parents demand mature behavior but use reason rather than force in discipline.
92
Authoritarian parents
Parents who are rigid in their rules and who demand obedience for the sake of obedience.
93
Permissive parents
Parents who impose few, if any, rules and who do not supervise their children closely.
94
Uninvolved parents
Parents who generally leave their children to themselves.
95
Adolescence
The period of life bounded by puberty and the assumption of adult responsibilities.
96
Puberty
The period of physical development during which sexual reproduction first becomes possible.
97
Secondary sex characteristics
Characteristics that distinguish females from males, such as distribution of body hair and depth of voice, but that are not directly involved in reproduction.
98
Menarche
The beginning of menstruation
99
Formal operational stage
Piaget's fourth stage, characterized by abstract logical thought and deduction from principles.
100
Imaginary audience
An aspect of adolescent egocentrism; the belief that other people are as concerned with our thoughts and behaviors as we are
101
Personal fable
Another aspect of adolescent egocentrism; the belief that our feelings and ideas are special and unique and that we are invulnerable.
102
Postconventional level
According to Kohlberg, a period during which moral judgments are derived from moral principles and people look to themselves to set moral standards.
103
Emerging adulthood
Period of development, roughly spanning the ages of 18 to 25, during which time many young people in affluent nations attend college and graduate school, sort out identity issues, and create life plans.
104
Menopause
The cessation of menstruation
105
Crystallized intelligence
One's lifetime of intellectual achievement, as shown largely through vocabulary and knowledge of world affairs.
106
Fluid intelligence
Mental flexibility as shown in learning rapidly to solve new kinds of problems.
107
Alzheimer's disease
A progressive form of mental deterioration characterized by loss of memory, language, problem-solving, and other cognitive functions
108
Empty-nest syndrome
A sense of depression and loss of purpose felt by some parents when the youngest child leaves home
109
Sandwich generation
People in middle adulthood who are responsible for meeting the needs of their children yet also responsible for aging parents.
110
Selective optimization with compensation
Reshaping one's life to concentrate on what one finds to be important and meaningful in the face of physical decline and possible cognitive impairment.
111
Cognitive-dissonance theory
The view that we are motivated to make our cognitions or beliefs consistent with each other and with our behavior.
112
Attitude-discrepant behavior
Behavior inconsistent with an attitude that may have the effect of modifying an attitude.
113
Effort justification
In cognitive-dissonance theory, the tendency to seek justification (acceptable reasons) for strenuous efforts.
114
Prejudice
An attitude toward a group that leads people to evaluate members of that group negatively
115
Discrimination
Hostile behavior directed against groups toward whom one is prejudiced.
116
Stereotyping
Erroneous assumptions that all members of a group share the same traits or characteristics.
117
Social perception
A subfield of social psychology that studies the ways in which we form and modify impressions of others.
118
Primacy effect
The tendency to evaluate others in terms of first impressions.
119
Recency effect
The tendency to evaluate others in terms of the most recent impression
120
Attribution
A belief concerning why people behave in a certain way
121
Dispositional attribution
An assumption that a person's behavior is determined by internal causes such as personal traits.
122
Situational attribution
An assumption that a person's behavior is determined by external circumstances such as the social pressure found in a situation.
123
Fundamental attribution error
The assumption that others act predominantly on the basis of their dispositions, even when there is evidence suggesting the importance of their situations.
124
Actor-observer effect
The tendency to attribute our own behavior to situational factors but to attribute the behavior of others to dispositional factors.
125
Self-serving bias
The tendency to view one's successes as stemming from internal factors and one's failures as stemming from external factors.
126
Social influence
The area of social psychology that studies the ways in which people influence the thoughts, feelings, and behavior of others.
127
Social facilitation
The process by which a person's performance is increased when other members of a group engage in similar behavior
128
Evaluation apprehension
Concern that others are evaluating our behavior
129
Diffusion of responsibility
The spreading or sharing of responsibility for a decision or responsibility within a group
130
Altruism
Unselfish concern for the welfare of others
131
Bystander effect
The tendency to avoid helping other people in emergencies when other people are also present and apparently capable of helping
