test 2 Flashcards
(155 cards)
1
Q
THEORY
A
a set of propositions meant to explain a class of observations
2
Q
hypotheses
A
expectations about what should occur if a theory is true
3
Q
classical theory of conditioning hypotheses
A
people with phobias should be more likely than those int eh general population to have had traumatic experiences with the situations they fear
4
Q
focus of testing
A
disproving rather than proving a theory
5
Q
a good theory can be proven
A
FALSE
6
Q
researchers always build a theory by examining data, making rational assumptions, and then carefully testing hte next small step - intuition is rarely involved
A
FALSE
7
Q
hypotheses are broader and more abstract than a theory is
A
FALSE
8
Q
most common research methods in the study of abnormal behavior
A
case study, correlational methods, and experimental methods
9
Q
whats the most familiar method of observing human behavior
A
case study
10
Q
case study
A
collection of detailed biographical information
11
Q
evaluation of case study
A
excellent source of hypotheses
can provide information about novel cases or procedures
can disconfirm a relationship that was believed to be universal
cannot provide causal evidence because cannot rule out alternative hypotheses
12
Q
what does a case study involve
A
recording detailed information about one person at a time. clinical cases
13
Q
what does a comprehensive case study cover
A
developmental milestones, family history, medical history, educational background, jobs held, marital history, social adjustment, personality environment, and experience in therapy across the life course
14
Q
correlation
A
study of the relationship between two or more variables, measures as they exist in nature
15
Q
evaluation of a correlation
A
widely used because we cannot manipulate many risk variables (such as personality, trauma, or genes) or diagnoses in psychopathology research with humans, often used by epidemiologists to study the incidence, prevalence, and risk facgtors of disorders in a representative sample, often used in behavioral genetics research to stud the heritability of different mental disorders, cannot determine causalityy because fothe directionality and third variable problems
16
Q
experiment
A
includes a manipulated independent variable, a dependent varaible, preferably at least one control group, and random assignment
17
Q
evaluation of experiment
A
most powerful method for determining causal relationships, often used in studies of treatment, also usedin analogue studies of the risk facotrs for mental illness, single-case experimental designs also common ut can have limited external validity
18
Q
the case study can be used to:
A
provide a rich description fora clinical phenomenon
disprove an allegedly universal hypothsis
generate hypotheses that can be tested through controlled research
19
Q
can a case study disprove or prove a hypothesis
A
prove
20
Q
correlation steps
A
all participants complete the same measures > measure recent life stress > measure blood pressure > correlate life stress and blood pressure
21
Q
experiment steps
A
all participants randomly assigned > one gropu give speech in front of an audience and oen group sits quitely > measure blood pressure > compare blood presure readings of the two groups
22
Q
what does depression tend to correlate with
A
anxiety
23
Q
what is the correlation coeffience?
A
r, may take any value between -1.00 and 1.00 and it measures both the magnitude and the direction ofa relationships. the higher the absolute value of 4, the stronger the relationship between the two variables. fi the sign of r is positive, the two variables are said to be positively related; in other words as the values of variable X increase, those for variable Y also tend to increase. when the sign of r is negative, variables are saidt ob e negatively related
24
Q
what do scientists use statistcal significance for
A
a more rigorous test of the importance of a relationships. it is unlikely to have occured by chance
25
when is statistical findings usually considered significant
if the probability unit is >.05
26
alpha level
probability unit p>.05
27
clinical significance
defined by whether a relationship between variables is large enough to matter
28
what should researchers evaluate along with whether an effect is statistically significant
whether or not hte effect is large enough to be meaninful in predicting or treating a clinical disorder
29
what is a critical drawback in the correlation method
it does not allow determination of cause-effect relationships. a large correlation between two variables tells us only that they are related to each other, but we do not know if iether variable is the cause of the other
30
directionality problem
present in most correlational research designs hence "correlation does not imply causation"
31
longitudinal design
the researcher tests whether causes are present before a disorder has developed selecting a large sample of babies, measuring the risk variables repeatedly throughout development, and following the sample for 45 years to determine who develops schizophrenia. yield of data would be small
32
cross-sectional design
the causes and effects are measured at hte same point in time
33
high risk method
overcomes this problem, because only people with above-average risk of developing schiophrenia would be studied
34
third-variable problem
a third factor may have produced the correlation. often labeled as confounds.
35
ex of third variable problem
correlation between number of churches in a city adn the crime rates. third variable=population
36
example of correlational research
epidemiological and behavioral and molecular genetics
37
epidemiological research focuses on three features of a disorder
prevelance
incidence
risk factors
38
prevalence
the proportion fo people with the disorder either currently or during their lifetime
39
incidence
the proportion of people who develop new cases of the disorder in some period, usually a year
40
risk factors
variables that are related to the likelihood of developing the disorder
41
the national comorbidity survey-replication
an example of one large-scale national survey that used structured interviews to collect information on the prevalence of several diagnoses
42
research on behavior genetics has relied on three basic methods to uncover whether a genetic predispostion for psychopathology is inherited
comparison of members of a family
comparison of pairs of twins
investgation of adoptees
43
the family method
can be used to study a genetic predisposition among members of a family because the average number of genes shared by two blood relatives is known. siblings, as well as parents and their children share 50% of their genes. 2nd degree relatives share 25% of their genes
44
index cases or probands
collection of a sample of persons with the diagnosis in question
45
agorophobia
people suffeing from a fear of being in places from which it would be hard to escape if they were to become highly anxious
46
twin method
both monozygotic and dizygotic twins are compared. begin with diagnosed cases and thens earch for the presence of the disorder in the other twin
47
concordance
when teh twins are similar diagnostically, they are said to be concordant. to the extent that a predisposition for a mental disorder can be inherited, concordance for the disorder should be greater in genetically identical MZ pairs than in DZ pairs. when the MZ concordance rate is higher than the DZ rate, the characteristic being studied is said to be heritable
48
adoptees method
children who were adopted and reared completely apart from their biological parents
49
cross-fostering
in this case, the adoptive parent has a particular disorder, not hte biological parent
50
association study
researchers examine the relationship between a specific allele and a trait or behavior in the population. have become much more common as technologies for measuring alleles have become more affordable
51
genome-wide assoication studies
examines the entire genome of a large group to identify variation between people
52
which of the following are good uses of case studies:
a. to illustrate a rare disorder or treatment
b. to show that a theory does not fit for everyone
c. to prove a model
d. to show cause and effect
a. to illustrate a rare disorder or treatment
| b. to show that a theory does not fir for everyone
53
correlational studies involve
a. manipulating the independent variable
b. manipulating the dependent variable
c. manipulating the indepdent and dependent variable
d. none of the above
none of the above
54
what is the most central problem that is unique to correlational studies, regardless of how carefully a researcher designs a study
a. findings are qualitative rather than statistical
b. it is impossible to know which variable changers first
c. third variables may explain a relationship observed
d. it is impossible to know which variable changes first
third variables may explain a relationship observed
55
incidence refers to
a. the number of peoplew ho will develop a disorder during their lifetime
b. the number of people who report a disorder the time of an interview
c. the number of people who develop a disorder during a given tiem period
d. none of the above
c. the number of people who develop a disorder during a given time period
56
in behavior genetics studies, researchers can rule out the influence of parenting varaibles most carefully if they conduct studies using the
a. correlational methods
b. family method
c. twin method
d. adoptees method
d. adoptees method
57
experiment
the most powerful tool for determining causal relationships
58
experiments involve
random assignemnt of particpants to conditions
the manipulation fo an independent variable
and the measurement of a dependent variable
59
what is the most common form of experiment in psychopathology research
treatment outcome studies
60
basic features of experimental design
the investigator manipulates an independent variable, participants are assigned to the two conditions by random assignment, the researcher measures a dependent variable that is expected to vary with conditions of th eindependent varaible, differences between conditions ont he dependent varaible are called the experimental effect
61
internal validity
refers to the extent to which teh experimental effect can be attributed to the independent varaible. must include at least one control group
62
control group
does not receive the experimental treatment as is needed to claim that htey effects of an experiment are due to the indepdent variable
63
external validity
defined as the extent to which results can be generalized beyond the study
64
examples of experimental research
treatment outcome research, analogue experiments, single-case experiments
65
treatment outcome research
designed to address a simple question: does treatment work? the answer is ye
66
a treatment study should include the following criteria
a clear definition fo the sample being studied, such as description of diagnoses, a clear description of the treatment being offered
as in a treatment manual
inclusion of a control or comparison treatment condition
random assignment of clients to treatment or comparison conditions
reliable an dvalid outcome measures
a large enough sample of statistical test
67
randomized controlled trials (RCT)
studies in which clients are randomly assigned to receive active treatment or a comparison. the independent variable is the treatment and the dependent variable is the client's outcome
68
placebo
therapy that consists of support and encouragement but not he active ingredient of therapy under study, or a sugar pill that is described to the patient as a proben treatment
69
double blind procedure
the psychiatrist and the patient are not told whether the patient received activfe medication ro a placebo, so as to reduce bias in evaluating outcomes
70
placebo effect
refers to a physical or psychological improvement that is due to a patient's expectations of help rather than to any active ingredient in a treatment
71
efficacy
whether a treatmetn works under the purest of conditions
72
effectiveness
how well the treatment works in the real world
73
dissemination
process of facilitating adoption of efficacious treatments in the community most typically by offering clinicans guidelines about the best available treatments along with training on how to conduct those treatments
74
in an experimental design the research manipulates the
the independent variable
75
dr jones is interested in whether a new treatment for autism will be helpful. she recruits 30 participants, and seh randomly assigns 15 to receive drug X ad 15 to receive a placebo. after 3 weeks of treatment, she measures social engagement. in this study, the independent varaible is
medication condition
76
dr jones is interested in whether a new treatment for autism will be helpful. she recruits 30 participants, and she randomly assigns 15 to receive drug X adn 15 to receiv ea placebo. after 3 weeks of treatment, seh measures social engagement. in thsi study, the indepedent variable is:
social engagement
77
what are the elements of an RCT by definition
randomization and a comparison condition
78
the goal of effectiveness studies is to determien whether a treatment works
under real-world conditions
79
analogue experiments
investigators attempt to creater or observe a related phenomenon in the laboratory to allow more intensive study
80
single-case experiments
experimenter studies hwo one person response to manipulations of the independent varaible. can have high internal validity
81
specific sequence of reversal design or ABAB design
an initial time period (baseline) (A)
a period when a treatment is introduced (B)
reinstatement of the conditions of the baseline period (A)
reintroduction of the treatment (B)
82
biggest drawback of a single-case design
potential lack of external validity
83
meta-analysis
step1: thorough literature search, so that all relevant studies are identified and defines which studies will be included
step2: the effect size within each study is calculated
step3: the average effect size across studies is calculated
84
single case experimental designs may lack:
external validity
85
correlational studies may lack
internal validity
86
the step in meta-analysis that has received extensive criticism is
determining which studies should be included
87
two broad types of mood disorders
those that involve only depressive symptoms and those that involve manic symptoms (bipolar disorder)
88
3 new depressive disorders proposed by the DSM V
mixed anxiety/depresive disorder
premenstural dysphoric disorder
disruptive mood dysregulation disorder
89
cardinal symptoms of depression
profound sadness and or an inability to experience pleasure
90
major depressive disorder major features
5 or more depressive symptoms, including sad mood or loss of pleasure for 2 weeks
91
dysthymia major features
low mood and atleast two other symptoms of depression at least half of the time for two yeasr
92
mixed anxiety/depressive disorder major features
symptoms of depression adn anxiety are present, but diagnostic criteria for antoehr anxiety or depresive disorder are not met
93
premenstrual dysphoric disorder major features
depressive or physical symptoms in the week before menses
94
disruptive mood dysregulation disorder
severe recurretn temper outbursts and persistent negative mood for at least one year beginning before age 10
95
bipolar I disorder
at leat one lifetime manic episdoe
96
bipolar II disorder
at least one lifetime hypomaniac episode and one major depressive disorder
97
cyclothymia
recurretn mood changes from high to low for at least 2 years, without manic or depressive episodes
98
psychomotor retardations
thoughts adn movements may slow
99
psychomotor agitation
cannot sit still - they pace, fidget, and wring their hands
100
major depressive disorder
DSM-V requires five depressive symptoms to be present for at least 2 weeks. these symptiosn must include either depressed mood or loss of interest and pleasure. additional symptoms must be present, such as changes in sleep, appetite, concentration or decision making, feelings of worthlessness, suicidality, or psychomotor agitation or retardations
101
episodic disorder
symptoms tend to be present for a period of time and then clear. an untreated episode may stretch on for 5 months or even longer
102
people with dysthymia
chronically depressed - more than half of the time for at least 2 years and have at least two other symptoms of depression
103
mania
state of intense elation or irritability accompanied by other symptoms shown in teh daignostic criteria
104
flight of ideas
dificult to interrupt and may shift rapidly from tmopic ro topic
105
hypomania
less extreme- does nto involve significant impairment. a change in function that does not cause serious problems
106
major depressive disorder is diagnosed based on at least ______ symptoms lasting at least _______ weeks
five, two
107
approximatley ______% of people will experience major depressive disorder during their lifetime
16-17
108
among adults, depressive symptoms must last for at least _______ years to qualify for a DSM 5 diagnosis of dysthymia
two
109
worldwide, approximately _____ out of everyone 1,000 people will experience a manic episode during their lifetime
six
110
bipolar I disorder is diagnosed on teh basis of manic episodes, and bipolar II disorder is diagnosed on teh basis of hypomanic episdoes
manic, hypomanic
111
rapid cycling
refers to the overall pattern of episdoes over time, whereas other sybtypes describe the current episdoe of major depression or mania
112
melancholic
episodes of depression
113
reward system
guides pleasure, motivation,and energy inteh context of opportunities to obtain rewards
114
tryptophan
major precursor of serotonin. deplete levels of tryptophan to lower serotonin levels
115
brain structures that have been most studied in depression
amygdala, the subgenual anterior cingulate, the hippocampus, and the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex
116
cushings syndrome
causes oversecretion fo cortisol, frequently expereince depressive symptoms. high cortisol levels
117
expressed emotion
family member's critical or hostile comments toward or emotional overinvolvemetn with the personwith depression. high EE strongly predicts relapse in depression
118
neurotocism
a personality trait that involves the tendency to react to events with greater-than-average negative affect, predicts the onset of depression
119
becks theory
depression si associated with a negative triad
120
negative triad
negative views of the self, the world, adn the future
121
cognitive biases
tendencies to process information in certain negative ways. beck suggested that people with depression might be overly attentive to negative feedback about themselves
122
hopelessness theory-major elements
negative life event>stable global attribution about the event and its meaning for hte future or self or other cognitive factors such as low self-esteem > hopelessness > hopelessness subtype of depression defined by specific symptoms
123
attributions
the explanations a person forms about who a stressor has occured
124
attributional style
leads themt o believe tha tnegative life events are due to stable and global causes are likely to become hopeless, and this hopelessness will set the stage for depression
125
rumination theory
rumination may increase th risk of depression. rumination is defined as a tendency to repetively dwell on sad experiences and thoughts, or to chew on material again adn again
126
two types of factors have been found to predict increases in manic sumptoms over time
reward senstiivity and sleep deprivation
127
mindfulness-based cognitive therapy
focuses on relapse prevention after successful treatmetn for recurrent episdoes of major depresion
128
behavioral couples therapy
when a person with depresion is also experiencing marital distress, as effective in relieving depression as indivdual CT
129
psychoedcuational approaches
help people learn about the symptoms fo the disorder, the expected time course of symptoms, the biological and psychological triggers for symptoms, and treatment strategies
130
antidepressant drugs
MAOIs
tricyclic antidepressants
SSRIs
131
lithium
naturally occuring chemical elemtn, was the first mood stabilizer identified
132
G-proteins
guanine nucleotide-binding proteins that play an important role in modulating activity in the postsynaptic cell. high levels found in patienst with mani and low levels in patienst with depression
133
suicide
involves behaviors taht are inteded to cause death adn actuallyd o sno
134
non-suicidal self injury
involves bhvrs that ar emeant to cause immediate bodily harm but are nto intended to cause death
135
anxiety
apprehension over an anticipated problem
136
fear
reaction to immediate danger
137
social anxiety disorder
persistent, unrealistically intense fear of social situation that might involve being scrutinized by, or even just exposed to, unfamiliar people
138
panic disorder
frequent panic attacks that are unrelated to specific situations and by worry abut having more panic attacks
139
panic attack
sudden attack of intense apprehension, terror, and feelings of impending doom, acompanied by at least four other symptoms
140
physical symptoms of a panic attack
labored breathing, heart palpitations, nausea, upset stomach, chest pain, feelings of choking and smothering, dizziness, lightheadedness, sweating, chills, heat sensations,and trembling
141
depersonalization
feeling of being outside one's body
142
derealization
feeling of the world's not being real
143
generalized anxiety disroder
worry: chew on a problem and be unable to let go fo it
144
subthreshold symptoms
symptoms that do not meet full diagnostic criteria
145
mowrer's two-factor model
through classical conditioning, a person leasrn to fear a netural stimulus, that is paired with an intrisically aversive stimulus
through operant conditioning a person gains relief by avoiding the CS. thsi avoidant response is maintained because it is reinforcing it
146
medial prefrontal cortex
appears to be important in helping to regulate amygdala activity. it si involved in extinguishing fears as well as using emotion regulation strategies to control emotions
147
behavioral inhibition
tendency to become agitated an cry when faced with novel tous, people, or stimuli
148
prepared learning
our fear circuit may have been "prepared" by evolution to learn fear o fcertain stimuli
149
locus coeruleus
major source of the neurotransmitter noepinephrine in the brain, and norepinephrine plays a major role in triggering sympathetic nervous system activity
150
interoceptive conditioning
classical conditioning of panic attack in response to bodily sensations
151
anxiety sensitivity index
measures the extent to which people respond fearfully to their bodily sensations which measure the extent to which people respond fearfully to their bodily sensations
152
fear of fear hypothesis
agoraphobia is driven by negative thoghts about the consequences of experiencing anxiety in public
153
panic control therapy
based on teh tendency of people with panic disorder to overreact to bodily sensations
154
anxiolytics
drugs that reduce anxiety
155
two types of medications are commonly used for th etreatment of anxiety disorders
benzodiazepines and antidepressants
