Test 2

Question 1

What is social constructionism?

Answer 1

What is considered knowledge is seen as constructed via language and social interaction processes that often reflect society’s norms

Question 2

Difference in talk between men and women

Answer 2

Women talk more. Women talk to relate, men to get things done.

Question 3

Mark Liberman’s challenge to The Female Brain

Answer 3

whatever the average female versus average male difference turns out to be, it will be small compared with the variation among women and among men

Question 4

fashion over time: female and male

Answer 4

1900-1950s corsets everywhere
1960s-2000s Androgynous and boyish
1900s-1960s Began to lose muscles because they were not doing hard labour, adverts to not be the skinny guy
1970s onwards longer hair and more female styles

Question 5

‘Intersex’ people

Answer 5

Intersex- genitalia that are ambiguous, range of sex/genetic variations

Question 6

Issues for intersex people

Answer 6

Harsh social effects of not fitting gender norm 
Health services issues 
Well-being 
Issues with gender reassignment surgery
Importance of support

Question 7

What does “non-binary” gender mean

Answer 7

Having no gender (e.g., gender neutral)
Incorporating aspects of both man and woman or being somewhere between those ( mixed gender, androgynous)
Being to some extent, but not completely, one gender (e.g., demi-man/boy/woman/girl, femme man)

Question 8

Responses to non-binary people

Answer 8

reclassify them so no longer anomalous
eradicate them
avoid contact if at all possible
categorize them as dangerous to normal people
incorporate them into myth and story as ways to access other levels of existence

Question 9

Too fast for a woman’: The case of Caster Semenya

Answer 9

Performance questioned on basis of gender

supposedly gender tested by officials -> ridiculous

Question 10

Judith Butler on gender

Answer 10

gender is not something we have (identity) but something that is performed (enacted) and performative (i.e through repetitions of acts that are constructed to mean feminine or masculine we come to think of ourselves as a particular gender)
a phenomenon being produced and reproduced all the time

Question 11

Five main forms - code for sex

Answer 11

Sustinance
Sport
Animals
War/violence
Transportation/mechanics

Question 12

Construction of Sexuality through the male sex drive

Answer 12

Biological male sex drive: sex as almost overwhelming hormonal driven male need that must be satiated
Man is the desiring one and the woman is the object i.e. women activate the interest and need

Question 13

Sexuality on a spectrum: the Kinsey Scale

Answer 13

First published by sexologist Alfred Kinsey in 1948 in an attempt to encompass a range of human sexual behaviours
Applied both in terms of sexual attraction and actual sexual activity

Question 14

Problems with the Kinsey Scale

Answer 14

The base value “0” is heterosexual, presented as the norm (reinforces the pathologisation of non-heterosexual behaviours)
No axes for spectrum of asexuality
Nonbinary/intersex relationships to sexual orientation unclear

Question 15

Judgments are shaped by biases & heuristics

Answer 15

Biases – systematic shift from objective data

Heuristics - shorthand rule of thumb

Question 16

Decisions: Framing

Answer 16

• Framing: 2 alternative framings of a choice
logically the same,
but people favour one option
Solution: opt out system

Question 17

Decisions: Nudges

Thaler & Sunstein 2008

Answer 17

Nudge: ‘any aspect of a choice that alters people’s behavior predictably’
Without changing economic incentives
e.g. School café - put healthy foods at eye level
Also rebrand veges with catchy names

Question 18

Decisions:

Sunk cost fallacy

Answer 18

Businesses often invest more money in a losing enterprise
Company has spent $50 million on a project
Forecasts of future returns are poor
To give the project a chance, need $60 million more
An alternative new project costs the same and looks likely to have higher returns
Most companies stay with the initial project

Question 19

Decisions:

losses & gains differ

Answer 19

Losses loom larger than gains: Changes in price
when prices drop - customers buy more. when prices rise - customers buy less
the effect of price rises [losses] is stronger
Endowment effect - When we sell stuff, we ask more than we’d pay for the same good

Question 20

Heuristics: 1 Availability

Tversky and Kahneman

Answer 20

People’s judgments – reflect available data
Ann & Sue short-listed for manager job, Both internal, but Sue is newer to the company, Decide to appoint Ann, Sue gets job in competing company and does better than Ann

Question 21

Heuristics: 2: Representativeness

Answer 21

How similar is a person to a stereotype, Affects judgments of probability
E.g., Moneyball [Michael Lewis]
People have stereotype of a good employee, Base decisions on this, not performance

Question 22

Heuristics:

3 Anchoring

Answer 22

Prior knowledge about a value shapes judgments

Question 23

Unrealistic optimism (Weinstein)

Answer 23

People think things won’t go wrong [to them]
Upside - helps motivation & implementation
Downside - Take more risks

Question 24

A related bias

- hindsight

Answer 24

When an unpredicted outcome occurs, we adjust our view of the world to accommodate the surprise, e.g. election results
We even say [and think] we predicted it
What’s the problem with this? We don’t learn the lessons about where we were wrong and why

Question 25

How can we counter | overconfidence?

Answer 25

Gary Klein - have a premortem.

Question 26

Four strands affect voluntary action

Answer 26

Perception of the risk Overcoming fatalism From intentions to action Motivation

Question 27

Biases in risk perception: | Dimensions of risk [Slovic]

Answer 27

Voluntary vs non voluntary, we tolerate voluntary risks more when we have control Catastrophic potential / dread, kills lots as a time vs a steady trickle Known vs Unknown

Question 28

Biases: 1. low frequency hazards [Slovic, ’82]

Answer 28

People casual about low frequency & long term, People prepare less, We see low frequency events as never happening, or at least, not in our lifetime

Question 29

Biases 2: Denial

Answer 29

With earthquake risk – quake won’t happen, With climate change, deny the science and risk, Reduces anxiety, so it’s tricky to change,

Question 30

Denial: How counter it? [Lehman & Taylor, 89]

Answer 30

Less denial where we control outcomes Less denial where we reduce vulnerability Counter false arguments

Question 31

Biases 3: | Unrealistic optimism:(Weinstein)

Answer 31

Optimism about own future relative to others Motorcyclists - (Rutter ‘98) Thought they were less at risk than others We think someone else will get cancer Entrepreneurs - overconfident go bankrupt more Demonstrated with e’quakes in Wellington

Question 32

What is the effect of experiencing a disaster? | • Two opposite effects: Helweg Larsen ’99

Answer 32

1. If effects are severe, optimism disappears – effect of nuclear meltdown in Japan - Germany 2. If no effects, optimism stays or gets worse - e.g. Lots of minor quakes in Wgton

Question 33

What’s Fatalism?

Answer 33

The belief there’s no point in preparing We think: What can we do? Our efforts are puny We confound a hazard and its effects

Question 34

How counter fatalism - 1.

Answer 34

1a. Focus on specific actions [Turner et al. 1986] | 1b. Small actions can make a big difference

Question 35

Countering fatalism: | [2] Causal models

Answer 35

Disasters reflect many causes, Experts’ causal models reflect this, Citizens’ models omit key links

Question 36

Countering fatalism: | [3] Distinctive damage

Answer 36

News media - universal damage | Present distinctive damage [newsworthy]

Question 37

Countering fatalism: | [4] Focus on causal mechanisms

Answer 37

When we explain events, we look for ‘mechanisms’ & attribute effects to these For earthquakes, causal mechanisms = building design

Question 38

Countering fatalism:[5a] Media portrayals:

Answer 38

Initial Kobe reports fatalistic: On the outskirts of Kobe new buildings as well as old were damaged Anniversary reports: less fatalistic: Western-style houses fared very well. Western-style commercial buildings also generally fared better than traditional commercial buildings.

Question 39

What is ‘preparation’ | Survival & mitigation

Answer 39

Many schemes focus on survival kit etc, Target actions that mitigate damage [Russell ‘99]

Question 40

Collapse (Diamond, 2004)

Answer 40

Why some societies collapsed while others thrived. | One key predictor - over-exploiting finite resources

Question 41

Two opposing trends around climate change

Answer 41

``` 1. Increasing emissions Developing nations, More technologies Increasing population 2. New technology & efficiency A race between these. ```

Question 42

Countering fatalism | Which messages work best?

Answer 42

Anxiety messages often counterproductive, Lead to reduced action, denial Effective messages, Target remedial actions, not just the risk, Target specific actions

Question 43

Motivation: | Costs & benefits - Actual & perceived

Answer 43

People assume sustainable option [always] costs more, May cost more in the short term, but not medium/long term

Question 44

Social dilemmas & fatalism | [Hardin ’68]

Answer 44

Individual interests conflict with the common good, If each country maximises own gain, all lose

Question 45

How overcome commons dilemma?

Answer 45

Communicate benefits of cooperation Communicate benefits of moving first Enhance payoffs for cooperation

Question 46

Risk perception and climate change Two processes (Slovic 2000)

Answer 46

1. Gut/visceral reaction, emotion [Affect], 2. Analytical processing, stats [cognitive] The two often disagree Gut reactions override analytical. If we feel cold…. Information often has little effect How respond? Translate data into visceral [gut] images

Question 47

Intergroup processes: How to make enemies & influence people?

Answer 47

Importance of sharing common goals A majority of the world’s people have a religion Dawkins (2006), etc. Science & religion are enemies Others trying to harness religion:

Question 48

Academic freedom, in relation to an institution, means

Answer 48

freedom of academic staff and students, within the law, to question and test received wisdom, to put forward new ideas and to state controversial or unpopular opinions