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PY203 > test 2 > Flashcards

test 2 Flashcards

1
Q

re-explain the traditional view of health

A
  • biopsychosocial model
  • focuses on biological, psychological, and social reasons for illness
  • criticized because it still focuses too much on bio
  • all three elements influence one another
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2
Q

how can hormones influence health

A

they can influence immune response

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3
Q

explain how emotions can influence physical health

A
  • may increase likelihood of engaging in certain unhealthy behaviors
  • increase in eating and eating of unhealthy foods
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4
Q

what is the wellness model

A

builds on biopsychosocial model

  • includes biological, psychological, and social
  • also includes spirituality and quality of life
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5
Q

what is quality of life?

A
  • life satisfaction

- money, education, ability to receive health care, and population density in your area

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6
Q

what is the world happiness report

A
  • landmark survey of the state of global happiness
  • ranks countries by happiness levels
  • ask to rank happiness on ladder
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7
Q

what are the global results of the world happiness report

A
  • no countries at highest or lowest levels of happiness
  • US ranked 18th (GDP, social support, life expectancy, freedom, generosity and corruption plays role)
  • Finland, Norway, Denmark, Ireland are happiest
  • US happiness has declined over the years (statistically significant, declined more than researchers predicted)
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8
Q

what are the misperceptions people have about how happy other people are

A
  • we underestimate self-reported happiness
  • South Korea predicted 24% are happy, but 90% are actually happy
  • highest guesses are Canada and Norway
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9
Q

can money buy happiness?

A
  • research shows that this is true

- people in richer countries tend to be happier and within all countries richer people tend to be happier

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10
Q

what is the definition of the five virtues

A

the factors that are most strongly associated with life satisfaction

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11
Q

what are the five virtues

A

1) hope: optimism and future mindedness
2) curiosity: interest and openness to experience
3) zest: vitality, energy and enthusiasm
4) love: valuing close relationships
5) gratitude: appreciation for the good

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12
Q

explain the “reliability” of the satisfaction with good life scale

A

has good reliability when doing test-retest

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13
Q

what does the holistic model of health do

A

stresses the importance of the mind and spirituality

-important for psychological treatment

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14
Q

what is considered mainstream or conventional medicine or treatments

A

western medicine given by doctors with pHd

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15
Q

what does CAMs stand for

A

complementary and alternative medicine

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16
Q

what is alternative medicine

A

using an unconventional approach to treatment as your only form of treatment

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17
Q

what is complementary medicine

A

blending of treatments combining both mainstream and alternative approaches

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18
Q

what are some categories of alternative methods

A
  • natural products
  • mind-body practices

people use them for wellness or treating a health condition

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19
Q

explain the natural products in US

A
  • fish oil is most common

- essential oils also common

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20
Q

explain essential oils

A
  • mixture of findings right now
  • effectiveness differed between oils and disorders

useful for treating: sleep disturbance, anxiety in nonclinical populations, certain bacteria and fungal infections
-this could be the placebo effect but it doesn’t matter because it still works

not useful in treating: stress, hypertension

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21
Q

explain some detail from the 10 most common complementary health approaches

A
  • natural products most common
  • deep breathing and mediation
  • homeopathy is separate category
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22
Q

what are homeopathic treatments

A
  • distinct from herbal supplements and remedies
  • small doses of natural substances intended to mimic your body’s symptoms to specific illnesses (“like cures like” and “law of minimum dose”)
  • regulated by FDA, but does not evaluate safety or effectiveness

treatments don’t actually work, no evidence

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23
Q

what are mind body practices and their trends

A

-focuses on physical manipulation of practices

trends:

  • no change for guided imagery, acupuncture or progressive relaxation
  • decrease in massage therapy
  • increase in yoga and meditation
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24
Q

is there examples / evidence of pseudoscience?

A

-there have been several studies within the last few years that support spinal manipulation as an effective option for back conditions/ pain

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25
Q

what % of people claim that mind-body practices actually work

A
  • 85% of yoga doers report better health and feeling better
  • 65% of natural products users and of spinal manipulation users report the same

if perceived results are placebo effect, it doesn’t matter

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26
Q

what are the types of meditation

A

transcendental, mindfulness, hypnotic

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27
Q

what is transcendental meditation

A
  • usually practiced 15-20 minutes a day with eyes closed and an accompanying sound
  • pures tate of consciousness
  • used for pain, blood pressure, PTSD
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28
Q

what is mindfulness meditation

A

-being mindful of sensations and external stimuli in a nonjudgmental way

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29
Q

what is hypnotic treatment

A

a mind and body practice designed to facilitate a hypnotic state, coolness, and control of symptoms
-used for weight loss, pain management, quitting smoking, and IBS (gut-related hypnotherapy)

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30
Q

does hypnosis/meditation work?

A

study shows it may reduce blood pressure, IBS, anxiety, depression and insomnia

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31
Q

are certain people more likely to use complementary forms of treatment?

A
  • european americans more likely than african americans or hispanic americans
  • women more likely than men
  • well-educated and higher income more likely
  • 50-70 year olds more likely to use (most common for back pain, neck pain, joint pain and arthritis; maybe this is because this is ages when people experience the most pain)
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32
Q

explain how the definition of stress has changed

A

stress: state of mental tension and worry caused by problems in your life
problem: good situations can cause stress (not just bad ones) ex. getting married or getting a job
stress: any event that provokes an internal, physical or emotional response can be viewed as stressful

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33
Q

can stress be good

A

stress in moderation could actually improve out ability to perform certain tasks

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34
Q

what is the inverted-U hypothesis

A

predicts that task performance should improve with increase emotional arousal- up to a point

  • past that point may deteriorate performance
  • task specific: a simple task requires high level of arousal, a medium complexity task requires a medium level of arousal, and a high complexity task requires a low level of arousal
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35
Q

what are the three types of stressors

A

acute stressors, chronic stressors, anticipatory stressors

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36
Q

what is an acute stressor

A

threatening evens with short durations and clear endpoints

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37
Q

what is a chronic stressor

A

threatening events with long durations and no apparent endpoint

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38
Q

what is an anticipatory stressor

A

upcoming or future events that are perceived to be threatening, despite the fact they have not occurred

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39
Q

examples of three stressors

A

acute: taking test, giving speech, driving in bad weather
chronic: chronic illness, sick loved one, work frustrations
anticipatory: is my boyfriend going to break up with me? (waste of time)

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40
Q

what should stress surveys include

A

1) major life events: infrequent occurrences, so how much stress can they actually cause?
2) minor life events: experience these more often, but if they are minor how much impact do they actually have?

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41
Q

what are the three theories of stress

A

talk about how the body and mind handle stress

1) fight or flight
2) General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS)
3) transactional model

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42
Q

what is the difference between the three theories of stress

A

Fight or flight and GAS: centered on the body’s physiological response to stressful stimuli
Transactional: centered on the cognitive appraisal process in response to stress

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43
Q

explain fight or flight

A
  • when faced with a stressful event, certain body systems work to help you respond to that event (heart, muscles, lungs, stomach, etc)
  • the endocrine system consists of glands that secrete chemicals called hormones into the blood stream
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44
Q

what are the two brain-body pathways in the fight or flight response

A

control physiological responses to stress

1) catecholamine pathway
2) corticosteroid pathway

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45
Q

what is the general adaptation syndrome (GAS)

A
  • homeostasis: body maintains balanced state
  • stressor occurs
    1) alarm: body initially responds to a stressor with changes that lower resistance
    2) resistance: if the stressor continues, the body mobilizes to withstand the stress and return to normal
    3) exhaustion: ongoing, extreme stressors eventually deplete the body’s resources so we function at less than normal

return to homeostasis or not, if body cant handle the exhaustion it results in illness or death

46
Q

what is the transactional model

A
  • need to consider the individuals ability to cope with a stressful stimulus, the body only reacts if the encountered stress exceeds the individuals personal and social resources
  • relies on cognition to appraise the situation
47
Q

what are the three steps of appraisal in the transitional model

A

1) primary appraisal: initial evaluation of relevance, level of threat, and degree of stress event brings (determines if event is stressful)
2) secondary appraisal: your ability to cope (determines how stressful an event is)
3) cognitive reappraisal: re-evaluation of the event as it develops
ex. seeing something scary in room and realizing it’s just a shadow

the appraisal process is unique to the individual and based upon his/her previous exposure to stimuli, coping resources (both physical and mental) and situational factors (health, mood, etc)

48
Q

what can people control in regards to stress

A

cannot control if you experience stressful situations, but you do have control over your appraisal of situations to some degree

when there are stressors you can anticipate, you can: prepare yourself mentally and physically and/or choose to reinterpret the situation

49
Q

what are the biggest stressors in the US

A

1) money
2) work
3) family responsibilities
4) health concerns

50
Q

what are demographic differences in stress

A
  • women report higher levels of stress than men, but the gap is closing
  • both men and women report similar stressors
  • higher amounts of stress in LGBT
  • Hispanic adults report most stress
  • those with disabilities more likely to experience extreme stress
51
Q

what are differences in stress based on SES

A

-it does not seem as though income used to have such of an impact, but now lower income is associated with higher stress

52
Q

what are generational differences with stress

A

generation Z (15-21), millennials (22-39), generation X (40-53), baby boomers (54-72), traditionalists (73+)

-millennials report highest stress levels, the Gen Z, then Gen X, baby boomers lowest

what are additional stressors that younger generations experience?

  • Gen Z stressors: work, money, health economy (higher stress levels in all of these compared to adults except for economy)
  • social media can be used to cope with stress but is also a source of stress
53
Q

explain stress and technology

A
  • constant checkers of social media experience greater stress than non-constant checkers
  • millennials have the greatest # of social media worries (think it has negative effect on health, think they’re attached to phone)
54
Q

what is the differences in perception of impact of stress on health in gender

A

more women think stress has a strong impact on their health than men
men more likely to indicate that stress has little to no impact on their physical and mental health

55
Q

does stress make you more susceptible to mental and physical health problems?

A

it depends

-stress and vulnerability to stress related influence can affect this

56
Q

what is the Diathesis-stress (D-S) Model

A
  • a model that attempts to explain why stress will impact the health of some and not others
  • predisposition (diathesis) to the diseases
    1) genetic weakness or biochemical imbalance
    2) childhood abuse or maltreatment
57
Q

what happens to the body in response to acute stressors

A
  • body releases cortisol (more energy, less pain); this is good in short tun but can be harmful in long run
  • can lead to memory problems, fatigue, weight gain, reduced serotonin levels, and inhibited sex drive (result of too much cortisol)
58
Q

what are stress related health issues

A

1) coronary heart disease
- social isolation and workplace stress increase relative risk of getting it
2) gastro intestinal issues
- microbiome-brain-gut axis indicates stress can lead to gastrointestinal issues (relationship between brain and gut)
3) development of ulcers
- shown to be related to the following pre-existing mental disorders: depression, phobias, PTSD and alcohol and drug abuse
4) obesity and addiction

59
Q

explain sex difference in stress illness

A
  • males report higher prevalence in alcohol abuse and drug abuse
  • psychiatric disorders that occur more often in women than men are related to stress
  • sex differences in stress response systems contribute to this sex bias in disease
60
Q

explain stress leading to negative emotions

A
  • irritable/angry
  • nervous/anxious
  • tired
  • sad
  • lack of interest/motivation
61
Q

explain the kindling hypothesis

A

major life stress provides a “kindling” experience that prompts the development of depression
-greater risk for depression specifically associated with health related stress and work related stress

62
Q

depression ailment of entire body?

A
  • has mental and physical effects (heart disease, hypertension, stroke, dementia, diabetes)
  • scientists are finding that the same changes to chromosomes that happen as people age can also be found in people experiencing major stress and depression (telomere end of DNA longer =longer life)
63
Q

explain chronic illness

A
  • has the most widespread effect on the immune system
  • most common stressors related to chronic illness
    1) unpredictable disease outcomes
    2) inability to control disease progression
    3) rate of deterioration
  • the level of stress experience by individuals with chronic illness can vary greatly, even when we are looking at individuals suffering from the same illness
64
Q

what is positive reappraisal

A

trying to see a situation in a more positive light

65
Q

explain how americans are optimistic about the future

A

they are stressed about the present, but hopeful for the future

66
Q

explain some coping techniques (especially in millennials)

A
  • physical activity (running, kickboxing, yoga)
  • watching TV
  • surfing internet, napping, eating, drinking and smoking
67
Q

explain millennials coping with stress that have money problems

A

millennials who say their stress about money is extreme are more likely than millennials who report low stress about money to say they engage in unhealthy behaviors to cope with stress

68
Q

how do people cope with food

A
  • eating more

- eating more unhealthy foods (usually involves certain types of foods with high fat or high cholesterol)

69
Q

define catharsis

A

does an aggressive, physical release of energy lead to stress reduction?
-research shows that aggressive, physical activity only fuels the fire

70
Q

define coping

A

any behavioral or cognitive action used to manage when situational demands exceed our expectations

71
Q

what are the two broad categories for types of cognitive coping

A

1) problem focused v. emotion focused

2) engagement focused v. disengagement focused

72
Q

explain problem focused v. emotion focused

A

problem- objective: find a workable solution, trying to solve the problem

emotion- objective: seek emotional support, not necessarily trying to solve problem, looking to deal with emotions of problem

73
Q

explain engagement focused v. disengagement focused

A

engagement: either problem focused or emotion focused, finding solutions or dealing with emotions (engaged with the problem)
disengagement: not engaged with the problem, ignoring it, least effective method, but could work for minor stressors

74
Q

explain strategies for coping in men v women

A
  • men indicate that they do not use any coping strategies at all moreso than women (could be disengagement focused)
  • men less likely than women to report that psychologists can help with making lifestyle/behavioral changes
  • men more likely to report they have been diagnosed with chronic illness
75
Q

why is HIV unique

A
  • has behavior of normal viruses like the flu

- flu makes copies of its genes and proteins, HIV inserts itself into host DNA

76
Q

how is HIV transmitted

A

sex, sharing needles, mother to baby transmission

not transmitted by water/air, saliva, tears, insects, pets or sharing food

77
Q

explain HIV & AIDS

A

Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV): retrovirus that causes Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome (AIDs): final stage of HIV

78
Q

when does the diagnosis of AIDs occur

A

when you have low levels of CD4 cells or if you have certain other diseases due to your weakened immune system

79
Q

what are CD4 cells

A

send signals to activate your body’s immune response when they detect “intruders”

  • CD4 count less than 350 cells/mm3= consider treatment
  • CD4 count less than 200 cells/mm3= AIDs
80
Q

“opportunistic” infections

A

suppressed immune system leaves the body vulnerable
-take advantage of a weakened immune system

  • most common cause of death for people with AIDs
  • HIV and 1 of the top 20 OI’s = AIDs
  • HIV = distal cause of death, OI = proximal cause of death
81
Q

where did HIV origniate

A

Africa

-hunters came in contact with chimpanzee (just a theory)

82
Q

explain AIDs in US

A
  • originated in 1981
  • 1982: term AIDs used for first time
  • 1985: one HIV case reported in each world region, boy with AIDs unable to attend school and he spoke publicly against this
  • *learned HIV is not a disease limited to homosexual men or intravenous drug use**
83
Q

explain AIDs in the beginning

A
  • understanding of HIV/AIDs was very limited
  • we needed an explanation and Gaetan Dugas (patient 0) became that
  • *had a lot of sex with a lot of men, so he was a factor in how fast it spread**
  • *he would still have sex with men even when he knew he was getting them sick-he didnt care**
84
Q

what groups have a higher prevalence of AIDs

A
  • sex workers and clients
  • gay men
  • transgender women
  • those who inject drugs
85
Q

what is the rate of diagnosis of AIDs

A
  • higher in men than women
  • more common in Black/ African American races (43%)
  • lowest in white and Asian races (25%)
86
Q

what are the trends of AIDs

A

-rates have decreased for all races except for Asian and American Indian

87
Q

what is the most common transmission of AIDs

A
  • male to male sexual contact

- followed by heterosexual contact and injecting drugs

88
Q

explain the incidence in homosexual men of AIDs

A
  • blacks have highest risk

- then Hispanic then white (these incidences just changed rank, Hispanic went up 30% and white went down 16%)

89
Q

explain age prevalence of AIDs

A
  • 25-34 most common (has gone up 30%)
  • > 55 lowest numbers
  • decrease in incidence in 13-24 year olds (-32%)

** could be because people are not getting tested**

90
Q

where is AIDs most common currently

A
  • in Africa, still has 2/3 of people with AIDs

- 15 countries account for 75% of people living with HIV

91
Q

explain the unknowingness of AIDs

A

1 in 7 people with HIV don’t know they have it

  • the disease is asymptomatic especially in early stages
  • only way to know is to get tested
92
Q

what are the AIDs test recommendations and requirements

A
  • if you injected drugs
  • had sex with men who have had multiple partners
  • exchanged sex for money
  • been diagnosed with STDs

CDC recommends screening be voluntary and opt-out, instead of opt-in

93
Q

is there mandatory testing for AIDs (different levels PA, various states, and federal regulations)

A

-WHO supports testing for blood and organ donors

PA:

  • testing for individuals 13-64 in all health care settings
  • separate written consent not necessary

Various states:
-require testing for prisoners, health professionals, people applying for life and health insurance, pregnant women and newborns

Federal regulations:

  • military testing (high risk group, especially during conflict)
  • HIV positive people cannot join military
  • test every two years and when you test positive it does not lead to automatic discharge, but leads to restrictions
94
Q

what % of people actually get tested for AIDs

A
  • around half of adults report being tested (16% in the last year)
  • more whites say they have never been tested (blacks get tested more often)
95
Q

why do people not get tested

A
  • think they are not at risk or ignorance is bliss
  • stigma: afraid of what people will say or think
  • money reasons
96
Q

what is stigma protect

A

intended to reduce stigma (by no longer saying HIV positive)

97
Q

what are some of the insurance policies with AIDs

A
  • there is insurance coverage for testing (medically necessary)
  • initiative was taken to cover all adults for testing (US Preventative Services Task Force)
98
Q

explain AIDs in Atlanta

A
  • one half of Atlanta’s HIV patients have AIDs (didnt get tested in time / knew they had it)
  • Atlanta is #5 in new HIV diagnosis
  • focus HIV testing program
  • 1% of HIV testing program test positive
99
Q

what are the AIDs testing options

A

-in 1990s ELISA (enzyme linked immunosorbent assay) test (results take 2 weeks, individuals may not return to obtain results)

  • *Now you can get results in a matter of minutes**
  • mouth swab
  • urine
  • blood sample
100
Q

how do at home AIDs testing work

A

detecting antibodies produced by body to fight HIV

-takes 2-8 weeks after infection before the disease is detectable

101
Q

what are the two types of at home tests

A

1) traditional mouth swab
- results take a few days to a couple of weeks
- only FDA approved test
2) rapid test
- takes 20 minutes
- if positive, must confirm with FDA approved test

102
Q

what are the two FDA approved at home tests

A

1) oral- results at home
- swab gums and place in a tube, takes 20-40 minutes

2) blood- results at lab
- anonymous:you are identified by #
- help line: toll free phone line
- timely: results available in 7 days

103
Q

what happens when you are HIV positive

A
  • all positives reported to state health department for tracking (no personal info given)
  • post test counseling (info about test, info about transmission and protection, info about confidentiality, and explanation of results)
104
Q

what are HIV treatment options and how have they changed

A

1987: AZT first approved treatment, but it is actually harmful

  • now there are more than 2 dozen drugs approved by FDA to treat HIV
  • usually take a cocktail, a Highly Active Antiretroviral Therapy (HAART), but drugs must be taken daily at consistent times
  • the same thing doesn’t work for everyone: most effective method is using different drugs from different classes
105
Q

explain the HIV treatment gap

A

most people who should be receiving treatment are not

-treatment can add years onto your life

106
Q

how can you protect a baby from HIV

A
  • moms take meds during pregnancy and birth
  • C-section reduces risk of HIV transmission
  • HIV can spread through breast milk, so give formula

these things in conjunction can reduce transmission to <1%

107
Q

what is also very important for people with HIV to do outside of taking meds

A

-good diet, exercise, avoid alcohol and drugs, lots of rest, regular check ups, take care of mental wellbeing

some spiritual practices may help (complementary approaches may help)

108
Q

explain the HIV trends of classification, deaths, prevalence, race, cause. and age

A

classification: increase due to expansion of HIV surveillance cases
deaths: decrease due to the success of highly active antiretroviral therapies
prevalence: maybe due to increase in testing
race: went from white to black showing highest numbers ( but all races show decrease)
cause: male to male sexual contact is leading cause
age: median age of death increased from 36 to 53 due to improved treatments

109
Q

is aids a leading cause of death in US?

A

used to be, but has declined rapidly

tuberculosis is leading cause of death with those with HIV
-hasn’t improved, we need to offer antiretroviral therapy to people long before CD4 counts fall

110
Q

explain criminalization of HIV

A
  • laws/ prosecutions for HIV non-disclosure or transmission
  • many states have laws

in PA

  • assault by prisoner if they expel bodily fluid (10 years) purposefully
  • prostitution: is a misdemeanor, but if HIV+ it is a felony
111
Q

explain risk by type of exposure

A
  • blood transfusion is greatest risk
  • anal sex risk > vaginal sex risk
  • antiretrovirals reduce risk by 96%, condoms reduce risk by 80%, both combined reduce risk by 99%
112
Q

what are psychologists role in the HIV epidemic

A

primary prevention
-changing behavior to decrease transmission of HIV (informing about risks and sexual safety)

secondary prevention
-helping people live with infection (coping with diagnosis, tailoring interventions to situations, finding meaning, adhering to complex medical regime)

PY203 (10 decks)

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