TEST #3 Flashcards

Question

Where does methane come from in Ocean/methane hydrates

Answer 1

Methane really comes from microbial processes in the sediment

Answer 2

When water has methane in it it raises the freezing point of it --> if the water has methane it will freeze at a higher temperature

Answer 3

Traps heat

Answer 4

Positive feedback mechanism --> when its warmer more water evaporates = more vapor in atmosphere = get more warmth

Answer 5

1. Fossil fuel use 2. Deforestation (trees are burned/decay + loss of trees to use CO2) ***Main driver = when we burn coal (burning fossil fuels)

Answer 6

1. Agriculture (fertilizers) 2. Fossile Fuels 3. Sewage -- includes manor from agriculture NOT just human sewage ***When oxidized = get N2O

Answer 7

1. Fossil Fuel production 2. Livestock 3. Rice agriculture 4. Landfills 5. Biomass burning

Answer 8

1. NOX and VOC compounds m industry react with sunlight to form O3 ***People make volatile organic compounds to use for industrial purposes --> when things make their way up to the atmosphere they can form ozone

Answer 9

1. Global warming from other gasses increases evaporation MAIN way --> because of other things making the atmosphere warming --> makes a feedback mechanism -- makes it warmer = ocean water evaporates Overall: Making more ocean water evaporate because we are adding more into the atmosphere

Answer 10

Take something in organic form and turning it into oxidized form of carbon (turning it into CO2) ***very similar to what microbes do during decomposition BUT instead of decomposition its a combustion reaction

Answer 11

Issues: 1. Might burn them or they might decay --> leads to combustion or decomposition = adds CO2 into atmosphere 2. Plants normally take up CO2 --> less trees = now have less plants taking up CO2 = more CO2 in the atmosphere

Answer 12

Type of methane --> when use it as a fuel + produce it + mine it = release CH4 into the atmosphere

Answer 13

Livestock = make methane --> we produce a lot of cattle for meat and dairy -- the cattle we produce them make a lot of methane

Answer 14

Microbes in rice patties = make a lot of methane

Answer 15

Landfills = often have vents because of the trash -- the organic matter in the trash is being broken down by bacteria --> need to allow vent for methane to escape -- methane then goes into atmosphere

Answer 16

They are added naturally BUT now humans are also adding = creates a cumulative effect

Answer 17

1. Get data from ice sheets --> sample bubbles in the ice cores that form when that later of ice forms (direct) 2. Use isotopes in fossil shells (less direct measurement)

Answer 18

Both methods have a close correlation -- they both correlate on the atmospheric composition

Answer 19

100,000 year cycle ***data is from long enough when humans were not around BUT short enough that we know the amount of volcanism didn't change --> MEANS THAT WE ARE SEEING ECCENTRICITY MILAKOVITCH CYCLES

Answer 20

1880 -- when have industrial revolution --> humans started using coal + becoming more industrialized + have cars --> can see an exponential increase in CO2 concentration ***Know its due to humans because there is not a lot of increase in volcanism change in that span of time

Answer 21

Mona Loa --> because its out in the ocean -- not doing it in a city (city would skew the CO2 concentration) ***Don't want to take measurements in a populated area that would have artificially high CO2 concentrations

Answer 22

Have seasonal variation because when the sea water gets warmer it releases more CO2 and when it is cold it absorbs more CO2

Answer 23

More CO2 in the southern hemisphere because the southern has more water ***Might be more seasonal affect on CO2 because there is more water

Answer 24

ALIGNS WITH ORBITAL PARAMETERS ***See milakovoitch cycles drive times when ice expands or melts

Answer 25

Drives what you see in ice cores + drives times when ice caps expand or melt

Answer 26

The effects of chnaging solar insoluation (due to orbital parameters -- Milankovitch cycles) is greatest at the poles

Answer 27

In the polar regions proxy record of paleo temperature and paelo CO2 concetrations co-vary cyclically along with Milakovitch variations over the last 800,000 years

Answer 28

Orbital forces drive the glacial/interglacial cycles during ice age -- you can see the milakovitch cycles drive times when ice caps expand or melt

Answer 29

Glacial interglacial cycles is NOT are we in a greenhouse or icehouse condition

Answer 30

Question = Greenhouse vs icehouse is are there SOME or NO ice sheets at this time – has to do with volcanism + how much greenhouse gas are there

Answer 31

1. Volcanism 2. How much greenhouse gas are there

Answer 32

Times when the poles were warmer more CO2 was released from solution in the ocean, because CO2 is less soluble in warmer water. **CO2 = less soluble in water when its warmer

Answer 33

ANSWER: kinda both NOTE: could not find based on regional record

Answer 34

The global temperature increase correlated to the increase in CO2 concentration --> cause and effect is implied Issue: Other things affect CO2 concentration

Answer 35

1. Volcanism 2. People adding CO2 ***More volcanism or more people adding CO2 = makes it warmer = makes water release more CO2 NOT JUST Temperature that affects CO2 levels

Answer 36

Scientists -- attempted to look at proxy record of CO2 concentrations and of temperatures - Make a graph from a composite global temperature curve from various isotope proxy record from marine and lake sediments spanning the last deglation - Looked at how much volcanism/sea floor spreading + look at microfossils + Look at ice cores + look at carbonates + Look at type of pollen in sediment change Results: Data suggests that increase in global temperatures do lag increase in polar temperatures and increases in atmospheric CO2 (Temperature lags CO2 concentrations --> evidence that CO2 increase is eventually followed by temperature increases)

Answer 37

Data suggests that increase in global temperatures do lag increase in polar temperatures and increases in atmospheric CO2 (Temperature lags CO2 concentrations --> evidence that CO2 increase is eventually followed by temperature increases)

Answer 38

Scientists determines that the sea surface warming during the last interglacial cycle happened faster in the souther hemisphere than in the northern hemisphere - They proposes that melting of Arctic ice during the warming trend caused density stratification in the polar regions, interfering with global ocean circulation so heat was not efficiently transferred from equator to poles. --> Subsequent warming drove CO2 release from southern oceans, a positive feedback that caused more warming, which then gets reflected in the northern hemisphere record. - Idea -- the melting of ice in the Arctic causes the density stratification in the poles = interferes with the way water normally flows -- interferes with normal flow = means that the heat isn't being transferred from the warm place to the cold as efficiently -- NOW heat isn't being transferred = means that the souther hemisphere ocean is even warmer = releases more CO2 = positive feedback mechanism

Answer 39

When looking at proxy records we see that temperatures increases because of various reasons and feedback mechanisms → proxy records tell us that temp increases corresponds to CO2 and other greenhouse gas increases BUT the temp increases slightly lag the CO2 increase

Answer 40

Very complicated --> complicated because many things affect it (CO2 from humans + CO2 in nature = Milakovitch cycles + Solar intensity which varies through time) -- ALL combine to one affect

Answer 41

If people affect one or more of the things that increase COS --> then people can cause positive feedbacks + Affect CO2 concentration

Answer 42

Shows pre-industrialization (if people never industrailized) -- shows before 1830s -- 72% (BIG amount) Shows Amount put in by humans since the industrial revolution (11%) Shows the amount of CO2 that is becuase of teh amount humans put in that increased global temperatures and causes positive feedback (not the amount that humans directley put BUT the amount due to positive feedback humans created) -- 17% Overall -- the 11% taht humans added warms iocean enough that ocean now add an additional 17% because of pisitive feedbalc --> NOW 28% is diorectley and indirectley caused by humans - Shows positive feedback --> warmer you make the earth the more the ocean releases = even more CO2

Answer 43

1. Burn fossil fuels 2. Industry -- making things where the production of those things also makes CO2 Ex. Making concrete --> making concrete = have som escape of CO2 3. Land use -- deforestation (trees would otherwise take in CO2)

Answer 44

Burning fossil fuels -- burning fossil fuels = the biggets human generator of greenhouse gasses Ex. Driving cars

Answer 45

ALL BURN/USE FOSSIL FUELS TO ADD CO2 TO THE ATMOSPHERE 1. Transpiration -- 22% 2. Electricity + Heat generation 3. Industry -- 20% 4. Residential -- 6% ***Transportation = almost equal to the amount of energy used in buildings

Answer 46

Electricity + heat generation --> biggest contributor to CO2 from burning fossil fuels

Answer 47

Example -- 1. Making plastics -- using petroleum to make plastics 2. Iron and Steel production -- use a lot of electricity

Answer 48

Making electricity requires us to burn things (burn Natural gas + coal) ^^^Reason why alternative ways of electricity is important

Answer 49

Because we know its a greenhouse gas = it traps heat

Answer 50

Comparing the average yearly surface temperature of the planet vs. if you took overall average of the entire time of the graph TREND: Can see trending being warmer than average at the end → see warmer with increase use of fossil fuels

Answer 51

If do nothing -- exceed 4 degrees above pre-industrial levels If stopped right now -- would likely be 1.5 degree increase

Answer 52

The CO2 levels would not just go away right away -- have "GEOPHYSICAL INERTIA" --> BUT it would start to decrease after time - CO2 would not just go away immediately

Answer 53

Best low scenerio -- 1.8 BUT more likely 1.1 to 2.9 degrees High scenerio -- 4.8 degrees BUT the likely range is 2.4-6.4

Answer 54

Because so much of our population is on the coast ***Now we are talking about it in terms of meters -- before we talked about it in terms of feet

Answer 55

1. Physical systems - Glacials + Snow + Ice + Oemifrost - Rivers + lakes + floods _+ drought - Coast ersion and sea level effects 2. Biological systems - terrestrial ecosystems - Wildfire - Marine ecosystems 3. Human and manages systems - Food production - Livelihoods + health + economics Ex. air quality is worse + affects livelihoods + affects biological systems (disruptions because of wildfires + heat stroke) + affects economics + increase of damage from floods + increase precipitation in some areas + not enough in some areas + increased coastal erosion

Answer 56

That's true BUT there are things that drive it and usually the things that drive it don't drive it at a rate as fast as the rate that humans are driving it

Answer 57

Occurred during the end of the Precambrian

Answer 58

4 Billion years of time -- bulk of the age of the earth

Answer 59

At 540 MYO --> have a boundary - At 540 MYO -- start the Phanerozoic eon

Answer 60

The Phanerozoic eon is much more broken down into more subdivisions -- have many smaller time periods of subdivisions ***Because animals now have hard parts = now have fossils = can now see change in time through fossils

Answer 61

We don't break down the Cambrian so specifically because there weren't a lot of fossils

Answer 62

Earliest time in the Phanerozoic eon Important -- Animals now have hard parts + Cytoskeletons - Mostly have shallow marine animals ***All animal phyla originate in the Cambrian

Answer 63

All animal phyla originate in the Cambrian

Answer 64

Cambrian = when multicellular arose and developed hard parts

Answer 65

Hard parts = important in whether they make a fossil → we need fossils to know about life in past - Once you have fossils = can see change in time through fossils

Answer 66

Allow scientists to divide time into different periods Example -- Can break into periods based on when you see an extiction event in the fossil record ***This is escpacially important before they had radiometric dating -- they could use fossils to still see different time periods

Answer 67

Have microbial mats -- have single cell bacteria + algea BUT they are harder to find older rocks + the fossils all look very similar ***Have less data because we see them less often ***Because worse fossils = reason why lumped together in the Precambrian time period and not split up into many subdivisions

Answer 68

Have their origins in the Archean -- before multicellular with hard parts evolved

Answer 69

There is evidence from the latest part of the precambrian that the glaciers are so extended that the ice sheets are all the way to the equator --> means that the earth was alosmst or completely covered with ice EXAMPLE OF EXTREME ICE AGE

Answer 70

Latest part of the precambrian -- almost all or all of the earth was coated in ice sheets

Answer 71

Massive episodes of glaciation = immeditaley process the time when we start to see muticellular organisms Question -- did glaciation maybe apply some evoljutionary pressure or drive evolution of multcellular organsims ***We did have eukaryotic cells before this

Answer 72

Glacial deposits from the very end of the Precambrian - Time of rocks date back to 600 MYO -- end of precambrian --> we see evidence of glaciers - Find glacial deopsits all over Example -- Find glacial striations + find glacial till + in marine sediments see glacial dropstones

Answer 73

Found throughout the world, even in places that were near the equator during this time (based on paleomagnetism).

Answer 74

Based on paleomagnetism ***Need to use paleomagnetism because the continents are not where they are found today

Answer 75

Find glacial striations + find glacial till + in marine sediments see glacial dropstones -- can date them back to end of precambrian (600 MYO) --> find them ALL over (even near the equator) -- leads to the hypothesis that ice sheets covered almost the entire planet

Answer 76

Idea that the who earth was covered in ice sheets at the end of the precambrian ***During the Proterozoic glacial tillites and dropstones were deposited throughout the world, even near the equator --> Some researchers hypothesize that the entire planet was encrusted by ice (glaciers and sea ice).

Answer 77

Means that there is ice sheets of some size at some extent they are present ***We are still in an ice age because we have ice sheets

Answer 78

There is more ice sheets in the south pole because there is more landmass in the south pole = usually see more

Answer 79

Period of the precambrian with ice sheets covering the whole earth - Neoproteozoic time - See multicellular animals right after

Answer 80

Mass extinction may correspond with an ice age BUT not always and there are other things that cause mass extinctions

Answer 81

Have greenhouse conditions →caused one of the biggest mass extinction events

Answer 82

Photosynthetic bacteria + algea ***Photosynthesis was becoming established in different single celled organisms

Answer 83

Proterozoic -- photosynthetic bacteria a+ algea were becoming more abundant --> created a rise in oxygenic photosynthesis that makes oxygen = that changed the nature of the atmosphere to become more oxidized ***Before photosynthesis = they used other metabolic pathways for energy

Answer 84

Increase in photosynthesis = have rise in oxygen in the atmosphere = changes the nature of the atmosphere to be more oxidized ***Before there was not a lot of oxygen Before photosynthesis = had methane + CO2 in the atmosphere THEN added oxygen --> Oxygen and methane react to oxidize to CO2 Overall: Start to have more oxygen and less methane

Answer 85

Increased amounts of Oxygen = Reduces other gasses that are in the atmosphere before it Before = The highest gas was methane Before photosynthesis = had methane + CO2 in the atmosphere THEN added oxygen --> Oxygen and methane react to oxidize to CO2

Answer 86

React together --> Oxidize to be CO2

Answer 87

1. Start having more photosynthetic bacteria --> Adds more oxygen to the atmosphere --> oxygen reacts with methane in the atmosphere = takes methane out and makes CO2 -- NOW have less greenhouse gasses because CO2 is less insulating than methane 2. AT THE SAME TIME -- there were organisms that lived everywhere BUT they don't like oxygen = they moved to places with less oxygen = they stopped making methane Overall: Have increase in oxygen + less methane --> LEADS TO THE BEGINING OF AN ICE AGE

Answer 88

Methane is much more insulating than CO2 Decrease in methane + Increase in CO2 = have less greenhouse gas

Answer 89

There were a lot of organisms that lived anywhere BUT they didn't like being around oxygen that was being added to the atmosphere = they went to places where there was less oxygen = NOW less methane is being made from these organisms

Answer 90

Have positive feedback mechanisms that reinforce it --> allow it to continue Ex. Ice sheets = more reflective than ocean or land = they reflect more light rather than absorbing heat = have more cooling because less heat is being absorbed

Answer 91

High Albedo -- means its more reflective than ocean or land = reflects more light instead of absorbing it ***Ice albedo = critical parameter in snowball models

Answer 92

Because of the oxygenation

Answer 93

Overall: Limited weathering on snowball earth led to the build up of CO2 Tectonically-driven carbon cycle on a snowball earth, where volcanism continues to emit CO2 into the atmosphere and ocean, but CO2 consumption is limited by the absence of weathering (due to ice cover and less rainfall). - No weathering = no Ca ions to form calcite (CaCO3) from CO2. CO2 builds up in ocean/atmosphere.

Answer 94

Normally -- dissolved minerals in the ocean like Ca react with CO2 -- Ca precipiates out and takes out CO2 = more CO2 will go into the ocean to replace the CO2 that was being taken out -- Ca + CO2 = forms calcite and makes limestone --> limestone is a sink for CO2 By adding ice you cover up rocks from precipitations + ciover rocks from the atomsphere (ice acts as a cap on the rocks) = have less weathering of rocks = have less minerals being dissolved --> IF no minerals being dissolved (no Ca or Mg being dissilved) THEN there are no dossolved minerals in teh ocean = less Ca in the ocean -- NOW Ca is not recating with CO2 --> MEANS the CO2 builds uop and is not being taken out by a major flux that usally takes out CO2 out of the geospehere --> CO2 keeps building = come out of the cie age - Fewer cations like Ca and Mg to combine with dissolved CO2 and create carbonate minerals, for example. ***Also still have volacnoes erupting adding CO2 into the atompshere -- Volcanic CO2 and other greenhouse gasses would build up

Answer 95

Dissolved minerals in the ocean like Ca react with CO2 -- Ca precipitates out and takes out CO2 = more CO2 will go into the ocean to replace the CO2 that was being taken out -- Ca +_ CO2 = forms calcite and makes limestone --> limestone is a sink for CO2

Answer 96

Negative feedback of glaciation

Answer 97

Extensive Ice Cover would limit rock weathering

Answer 98

Ice ages = also limits primary productivity by photosynthesis in the ocean (limits photosynthesis by Cyanobacteria + Algae) -- limited photosynthesis = produce less O2 and take in less CO2 = come out of ice age - This would also result in a buildup of CO2 and less O2 to oxidize methane. ***Negative feedback to warming -- limits duration of glaciation

Answer 99

1. Limited weathering of rocks 2. Limit photosynthesis ***Might also have increase in volcanism = come out of ice age

Answer 100

Shows earth doesn’t care about cycles BUT the cycles should not happen this fast

Answer 101

Ice age = set off by less volcanism + less greenhouse gasses in the atmosphere + can be set off by milakovitch cycles

Answer 102

Permeo-traiassic extiction

Answer 103

We have more evidence because it was more recent - Have more rocks + more fossils to look at ***We can see how it affects animals of all times simultaneously

Answer 104

Very rapid extiction event -- 10,000 - 165,000 years

Answer 105

Synchronous in marine and terrestrial

Answer 106

Had a total ecosystem collapse

Answer 107

Mostly due to intense volcanism in some areas of the world ***Things heated so quickly that it broke down the ocean current that brings water from equator to poles – driven by temperature differences (have convection currents in the ocean – convection cells at the poles = the water cools and sinks and travels at depth back down tow armer regions = makes loop) – loop takes water from surface and when sinks it carries oxygenated water to shallow marine on coastlines (bring oxygen down to area where most marine animas are) – ocean breaks down the oxygen gets used up = the sea goes stagnant – have things down there BUT no oxygen brought to them → thought to cause the mass extinction event

Answer 108

Have ocean current that brings water from the equator to the poles At the poles the water wools and sinks and travels at depth back down to the warmer regions = then heats up and goes to the top and gets oxygen and then goes to poles and cycles

Answer 109

Driven by temperature difefrence between equator and poles --> have conventiion cells in teh coean (convection cells at the poles)

Answer 110

Brings oxygenated water to shallow marine coastlines -- brings oxygen down to the area where most marine animals are IF if the current stops (Like when there is not a big temperature difference anymore) = then the sea goes stagnent = no oxygen is brought to the marine life = have extiction

Answer 111

Largest mass extiction -- 80-96% of all species died Caused major change in fauna from Paleozoic forms (crinoid, coral, brachiopods, bryozoan) to Mesozoic fauna (bivalve, gastropod, echinoid). Casualties (among marine inverts): - All trilobites, tabulate and rugose corals, major groups of brachiopods, etc. - Only 2 genera of ammonites survived.

Answer 112

Caused major change in fauna from Paleozoic forms (crinoid, coral, brachiopods, bryozoan) to Mesozoic fauna (bivalve, gastropod, echinoid).

Answer 113

The poles weren't warm enough to have the current maintained

Answer 114

Two events of widespread ocean anoxia, seas became stagnant ***Had anoxia because global warming prevented the Cold Oxygen rick water from sinking at the poles -- interupted the oceanic ciculation system

Answer 115

1. Gray chert replaced oxidized hematite in ocean sediments as oxygen was depleted 2. Had a strong negative shift in δ13C for sediments

Answer 116

There is also evidence for a meteorite impact(s) during this time which may have contributed to the extinction event

Answer 117

Massive volcanic eruptions related to mantle plumes were the probable cause of the global warming events.

Answer 118

Type of massive Flood Basalt The Siberian Traps erupted through the world’s largest deposit of Carboniferous coal, causing the release of massive amounts of additional CO2 and methane --> Most scientists agree that these eruptions and the associated global warming/ocean stagnation caused the late Permian mass extinctions, but the exact mechanisms are still up for debate.

Answer 119

Another contributing factor may have been that Earth’s continents at this time were arranged in one giant “supercontinent” known as Pangea --> This resulted in less coastlines and therefore less shallow marine environments, the places that harbor the most biodiversity

Answer 120

At shallow marine environments

Answer 121

Scientists can see than ocean circulation current are weakening with rising temperatures

Answer 122

1. End Permian (biggest) 2. Late Ordovician 3. Late Devonian 4. End Cretaceous 5. Late Triassic

Answer 123

Plots number of known marine families at any point

Answer 124

Two events of widespread ocean anoxia -- seas became stagnent Ocean anoxia because of global warming = prevents cold O2 rich water from sinkning at the poles -- interrupts the ocean circulation system

Answer 125

Ocean Anoxia = bad because organsims need oxygen ***Ocean anoxia because of global warming = prevents cold O2 rich water from sinkning at the poles -- interrupts the ocean circulation system

Answer 126

Shallow marine --> most diverse place -- where most organisms live

Answer 127

Anoxia = caused by global warming Global warming = caused by volcanism

Answer 128

Have a lot of volcanism -- because it was a time when continents were in pangea and pangea was starting to split apart Contenents = used to all be in one place --> THEN during the permo-triassic Pangea started to rift apart = lots of volcanism = adding lots of greenhouse gasses in the atopsphere

Answer 129

Continents = all used to be in one place -- we know this because of paleomagentism

Answer 130

Seen in sediments Black line in rocks = permotraissic boundery Black indicates: 1. Indicates iron is not oxidized because oxidized iron is red in color 2. Indicates that there is a lot of organic material like deasd algea -- dead algea settles into the seidments if there is O2 then the organic matter will decay quickly by bacteria BUT if there is no O2 present then the bacteria won't decay = algea stays -- accumilate organic rich black shales Red = indicates later in traissic after exiction ecent ended -- red because oxygenated Iron

Answer 131

1. Grey chert replaced oxidized hemotatice in ocean sediments as oxygen was depleted 2. Have strong negitive shift in Carbon 13 in sediments Black indicates: 1. Indicates iron is not oxidized because oxidized iron is red in color 2. Indicates that there is a lot of organic material like deasd algea -- dead algea settles into the seidments if there is O2 then the organic matter will decay quickly by bacteria BUT if there is no O2 present then the bacteria won't decay = algea stays -- accumilate organic rich black shales Red = indicates later in traissic after exiction ecent ended -- red because oxygenated Iron

Answer 132

There is also evidence for meteorite impacts during this time which may have also contributed to the exctiction event BUT it is mostly attributed to global warming

Answer 133

Massive eruprions related to mantle plumes were probably cause of global warming events Reason -- because the continents were in different place during permo-triassic -- had pangea --> at the time the continents were rifting apart = lots of greenhouse gasses in the atompshere

Answer 134

Ocean water moves from warmer areas to cold areas --> sets up a current -- carries water from equator to the poles --> when the water travels at the surface in the current from equator to the poles it gets oxyegsn --> when it reachs the poles where it is cold the watergets colder = it gets more dense = it sinks -- when ut sisnks in the coller regions then have the return current that takes water back from the equator -- the sinking water carries oxygen down with it form the surface and moves back down along the coast of teh contient in the shallow marine envirnments = it delivers oxygen to the shallow marine envirnments where most animals in the ocean live ***The shallwo marine rely on the return current when the water sinks at the poles and brings oxygen to them

Answer 135

If it shuts down -- all animals in the shallow marine are starved of oxygen -- no longer get oxygen

Answer 136

Runaway greenhouse conditions -- because there was volcanism that pumped CO2 and CH4 in the atmosphere causes temperature differences between the poles and the equator to not be so different to drive ocean circulation = couldnt get oxygen to shallow marine envrinemnt where most animals live = mass exiction

Answer 137

The location of the conteinnets = affected the ocean currents = affcted the mass exiction

Answer 138

Ocean current driven my termpature differences Bigger temperture differences = stronger current Less temperature difference = weaker current

Answer 139

1. Chinease flood basalts -- have lava flows that dates back to time period 2. Siberian Traps ***Most Scientists = agree that these eruptions and the associated global warming/ocean stagnation caused the late permoan mass exctictions bUT the exct mechanisms are up for debate

Answer 140

Massive flood bassalts --> see evidence for massive eruptions at the time that led to global warming ALL lava flows --> lava flows came out of rift that started to form in Siberia (failed rift -- the rift never went to completion) ***Very big area -- huge lava flow ***Like had mantle plume under continents that started a rift -- Lava erupted through coal depoists --> burning through coal = caused release of CO2 and CH4 from volcanic gasses and buring through coal

Answer 141

Most scientists agree that these eruptions and the associated global warming/ocean stagnation caused the late Permian mass extinctions, but the exact mechanisms are still up for debate. Possibilities: (Shallow water anoxia? Release of CH4 from methane hydrates in ocean? Sudden release of CO2 or sulfide from deep ocean? Lethal temperatures? Acid rain?)

Answer 142

Clathrates -- found in ocean sediment at water depths over 300 m where the bottom water temperature is aroun 2 degrees celcius ***Type of ice deposite

Answer 143

They prefer C12 over c13 -- greater C12:C13 ratio on average Reason = because the methane comes from living irganisms --> the living organisms making the methane prefer the lighter stable isotope = the carbin is skewed towards the c12

Answer 144

Positive feedback to warming How it works -- have methane hydtrates --> as temperatures wise the water temperature wises --> melts the methane hydrates in a very sudden way = now relause a lot of methane very quickly -- methane = greenhouse gas Overall: have volcanoes raising temoeratures of ocean --> then methane hydrates melt and release methane --> now have methane released = even more insulation

Answer 145

They form when methane seeps out of the shallow marine seidments -- microbial activies in the sediemnts in the shallow prodice methane --> when methane seeps out of the seidments n a cold water envirnment it increases the freezing point of water -- means the water with methane will freeze at a temperature slightley above zero = makes methane hydrates -- places the methane you have in ice deposit and the ice has a bunch of methane

Answer 146

Comes from organic matter in sedeiment -- the organisms take up carbon and make methane

Answer 147

The carbon is skewed towards C12 because that is orefered by the organisms making the methane --> the methan released from methane hydrates = skewed towards C12

Answer 148

At boundery = have negitive exlusion of C13 -- have more C12 ***The negative 13C isotope excursion at the Permian/Triassic extinction is interpreted as resulting from a massive release of light carbon in the form of methane from methane hydrates. Have a ton of C12 being released --> tells us that in the boundery = have a lot of light carbon being dumped into the system -- interpret the light crabin as being released from methane hydrates ***Positive shift towrds C12 -- because release of lighter isotope

Answer 149

Did this contribute to the extinction, either directly (atmos. toxicity) or indirectly (runaway rapid global heating in conjunction with Siberian Trap greenhouse warming)?

Answer 150

See isotope trends presevred in some types of fossils Fossils like CaCO2 shells = refect that the isotope ratios of the ocean/atompshere when they formed -- their shells = skewed towards light isotope because added light isotope to the solution that they formed in

Answer 151

δ18O records also suggest > 6ºC temp rise (melting polar ice, and shells incorporate relatively more 18O relative to 16O at colder temperatures). ^^^This amount of warming is greater than what volcanism alone would produce = know melting of methane hydrates due to warming caused release of massive amounts of CH4 to the atompshere

Answer 152

Terrestial causes -- volcanism

Answer 153

Another contibuting factor to exiction = earth;s conteinents at this time were arranged in one giants super continent Pangea Because they were arranged in pangea --> not good for shallow marrine organisms because that means that there is less coastline -- if they are sperated then each continent has coast line so if they are sperated there are more coastlines

Answer 154

Looked at family level + looked at shallow marine organisms - PLots the number of known marine familes at any given point

Answer 155

1. End Permian (biggest) 2. Late Ordovician – see big decrease in number of families as you cross boundary = mass extinction event – reason why draw the line of tim periods where you do Things that were around before are now extinct and there are now new things 3. Late Devonian 4. End Cretaceous 5. Late Triassic

Answer 156

Make bounderies at mass extiction events --> Draw bounderies when see a big decrease in number of families

Answer 157

50% of families go extict -- even more profound at the species/genus level because all is takes for family to survive is one genus to survive

Answer 158

Speculate that snow ball earth extreme ice age --> may have been driver in evolution - Because -- as soon as had ice age reced = we start to see evidence of multicellular animals

Answer 159

Time when all ice sheets are melted Example - Permo-triassic excition

Answer 160

Geologic time scale = orginally devised (before they had radiometric dating) -- they realized there were different periods in rocks -- made time periods based on the fossils that they saw Made names to time periods based on the types of fossils present during different times -- they saw that fossils in one layer and there would be a different type of fossil always right above or below them --> made time periods based on the fossils that they saw Basis where they put bounderies = mass extiction events (times when processing organism went exitct and the things that eveoloved after made it through) NOT all bounderies were based on exictoon events on global scale -- might be event that only affect a certain geographic region or certain organisms BUT the 5 global exiction events affcts all life

Answer 161

Permo-triassic

Answer 162

We have more information about shallow amrine area because if they have hard parts then they are more likley to make a fossil than other organisms in other places

Answer 163

Air moves over earth in response to pressure and temperature differences Air goes warmer --> Cooler -- makes convection cell in the atmosphere ***Air movement = driven by sunlight

Answer 164

Sunlight Air goes warmer --> Cooler

Answer 165

Get complicated because the earth spins on its axis + there are portions of the earth that are just big oceans and other protions of the earth that are covered with contient - Water and land don't conduct heat equally + dont heat evenley Result of both: Have several convection cells instead of just two convection cells at the tope and the bottom

Answer 166

1. Being earth spins on its axis 2. Because there are large portions of the earth that are covered in ocean and some covered in land and the two do not heat evenly

Answer 167

Type of convection cells -- Have air rising at the equator and coming down at 30 degrees THEN have another rise at 60 degrees and fall at the poles

Answer 168

1. Hadley cells 2. Rainshadow effect ***Desert formation = has to do with the roation of earth and the differental heating

Answer 169

Sun's rays hit the equator most directley and ploes less directley

Answer 170

What would otherwise be a few large convection cells between the poles and the equator becaomes divided into smaller cells between 0,30, and 60 dgerees north and south latituse WHY -- because of the roation of the earth and the differentaial heating between the contenents and oceans

Answer 171

A barren area of land where little precipitation occurs, and conditions are hostile for plant and animal life. Deserts support little vegetation, are usually arid (or ice covered), and can be hot or cold ***Can include ice covered areas

Answer 172

LOcated at 30 dgrees north and south latitude --> because that is where dry air in hadley cells fall ***Found at the tropic of cancer/capicorn ***Global atompsheric circulation patterns cause dry high pressure zones at 30 dgerees north and south latutude and also at the poles

Answer 173

When air rises at the equator it brings moisture with it (air rises there because that is where it is the hottest) --> as the moist air rises it cooles and the moisture falls out as rain around the equator = now lose the air mostire --> the dry air ends up falling at 30 degrees laititude = makes a high pressure zone NOW at 30 dgerees have dry air coming down making a high pressure zone = dirves evaportaion = takes all moisture = have desrets ***Explains why wer have deserts where they are -- global atompsheric circulation patterns cause dry high pressure zones at 30 dgerees north and south latutude and also at the poles

Answer 174

Rain forests -- Because the moist air rises there and as it rises it cools and the moisture falls as rain

Answer 175

Air rising = Making a low pressure zone Air falling = Makes a high pressure zone

Answer 176

warm air holds more moisture than cold air Cold air = holds less moisture

Answer 177

Can hold more moisture

Answer 178

Air masses moving up into cooler altitudes of atmosphere = lose moisture in form of precipitation

Answer 179

Rainshadow effect ***More local regional effect

Answer 180

When the moist air from the oceans flow over the mounatins it goes up to higher cooler altitudes --> As the air cools the moisture is lost as rain or snow --> on the downward side of the mountain the now dry air becomes warmer as it decesned = causes further evaportaion of moisture on the downwind side = creates desert

Answer 181

Occur when mosit air from the ocean flows ocer mountains -- forces the moist air up into coller altitudes

Answer 182

On the downwind side

Answer 183

Continents can have deserts on the other side of mounatin ranges Example -- Nevada + utah in U.S.

Answer 184

Desters form because they are behind mountain range that blocks moist air that would otherwise bring moist air from the oceans How does it work -- air with moisture hits the sierras --> when it hits the sierras -- goes up trying to go iver the sierras --> when it goes up it cooles = cold air can't hold moisture = moisture falls as rain and snow --> air loses all of the moistues and when it does down on the otherside it is dry = get desert Overall - the sierra nevada mountain range creates a rain shadow effect that contibutes to dryness of nevada desert

Answer 185

Term that usually is applied to rapid human-induced causes for the expansion of deserts in areas that formerly were vegetated (the degradation of formerly productive land). ***Making dessert in areas that formally were not so dry -- areas that used to have plants

Answer 186

Usually related to disturbance of native vegetation in arid areas OR replacing vegetation with crops that die off during droughts Depth -- there are plants that are adpated to live in drier area --> THEN humans come in and want to clear the land = they remove the plants that are deisgned to live there Issue = by replacing native plants with other vegitative plants they are putting in plants that might not be able to hold the land as well

Answer 187

get erosional features -- get them because there is new vegitation that is NOT native ---> when they clear away the native begitive the kinds of plants that the replace them with dont have the same root systems = don't hold soil as well = now wehn have rain --> get big eriosnal features because the plants that they places that are not native can't hold the soil as well

Answer 188

Eroyoes -- man made features

Answer 189

Unvegitated land is eroded more quickly -- get erosional features The fertile upper soil layers = get eroded away

Answer 190

Upper layer of soil

Answer 191

Large areas of US where agriculture is dependent on irrigation are vulnerable

Answer 192

Deserts have varied in their size and location throughout Earth’s history

Answer 193

Causes: 1. Global climate warming --> leads to higher temperatures + changing weather patterns 2. Adverse human land use practices -- reomve native vegitation + overgrazing + Tilage practices that increase wind erosion + dorught periods in agriculgtural areas that kill vegitation

Answer 194

Around 40% of world's land surfaces are drylands -- not including true desserts

Answer 195

Drylands are at risk of undergoing desertification --> about 70% are undergoing some degree of desertification

Answer 196

Wearing away a solid object by the impact of particles carried by the wind aka "sandblasting effect"

Answer 197

Removal of loose sediment by the wind

Answer 198

Usually removes the fine-grained fraction of the sediment

Answer 199

Wind --> wind can erode things in the same way that water does

Answer 200

A layer of pebbles or rock fragments that forms on the surface of a desert soil, where wind has “winnowed” or removed the finer grained material.

Answer 201

Wind = can only pick up the small stuff -- it can't carry the big things --> have a layer of things that the wind is not able to carry Wind leaves a layer of the course grain behind = the course grain forms a layer

Answer 202

Desert pavement = limites the extent of erosion because it makes an impermeable layer to wind

Answer 203

Wind -- logical because there is not a lot of liquid around

Answer 204

Wind = moves seduiemnt in a similar way to water Like water -- wind makes ripples in the sediemnt

Answer 205

Wind = makes ripples in sediement --> air moves sediemnt in the orevaling air direction -- it moves the sand up one side of the dune and dumos it down on the side opposite the air direction

Answer 206

Low-angle mound or ridge of sediment (usually sand) that forms during transport by wind Dune = Large scale version of ripples

Answer 207

Dunes move in the prevailing wind direction Process -- seidment grains are transported up the less steep windward side and spill over the slip face (moves sand up the less steep side -- then dumos sand on the front) = makes a ripple --> net efect = entire dune migrates Net effect of constant movement = the entire dune migrates ***Layers of sediemnts build up at an angle as the slip face advances

Answer 208

1. Windward side -- less steep + on side of prevailing wind direction 2. Slip face -- steeper downwind side (this is the side where seidments are dumped) ^^^At the angle of repose for sediements

Answer 209

Steeper -- it is at the angle of repose for the sediemnt

Answer 210

Cross bedding ***See cross bed in sand that is moved as a dune

Answer 211

When veiwed in a cross section -- sediemnt that has been transproted as dunes or rippes oftem have a charcahteristic cross-bedded structure representing the layers of sediemnt as they build up on the slip face as the dune migrated ***feature in dunes = cross bedding ***Can be seen in loose unconsolidated sand or in consolidated sand stone

Answer 212

Windblown SILT -- very fines grained sediments ***Silt not sand ***Silt = finer than sand ***Loess = can be brought into the deep ocean

Answer 213

Silt = can be carried much farther and more easily than sand -- can be suspended in the wind for many kilometers Silt = finer than sand

Answer 214

Inludes: 1. Sand 2. Finer grain things thatcan be carried for longer

Answer 215

Fine grain sand = can accumulate over time and make a deposit ***If more silt size = Loess

Answer 216

U.S loess deposits = found in the Midwest around the Mississippi river drainage basin ***Most Loess depoits in U.S. = in midwest

Answer 217

They are important because they have orgins in the last ice age when the glaciers were advancing and grinfding the rocks -- some of the sediemnts were very fine grain and the wind picked them up and put it in the midwest NOW -- have fine material that has not beene xposed to water = it still has all of the soluble nuterients in it = it can make fertile soil --> reason why midwest U.S has such good framland

Answer 218

Rock flour

Answer 219

The loess sediment originated as fine rock powder (“rock flour”) created by glaciers as they ground the underlying rocks. - When the glaciers receded the fine-grained material was washed out by the meltwater and subsequently blown and redistributed around the region by wind.

Answer 220

Because these sediments did not spend much time being transported by liquid water it still contains lots of soluble minerals that provide nutrient elements for plants -- making it very good agricultural soil. Also, it retains moisture well for plants Reason why the midwest has very fertile soil

Answer 221

Below with lots of loess = very old sediment that used to be at the surface – see times where there were more or less loess being deposited ***When layers were on surface – plants grow on them + they were soils when they were on the surface

Answer 222

***It is important to note the size differences of the different resaviors

Answer 223

Mostly care about freshwater

Answer 224

Most freshwater is in ice sheets

Answer 225

Some goes into soils BUT most goes into the oceans

Answer 226

Ground water -- one of the biggest freshwater resaviors

Answer 227

Water in aquifers -- Ground wayer = water that is in the pore space between sediemnts/sedimentary rocks -- we drill our way into the rocks and the rocks have water begtween the grains (have water between the sediemnts) NOT water in a lake below the ground

Answer 228

Takes water from the empty space in the sedimentary rocks

Answer 229

Might have water -- they have less porosity than sediemntary rock BUT it might have cracks that have water in it

Answer 230

Ground water

Answer 231

All water at or near the surface of the earth.

Answer 232

The amount remains essentially constant except for small losses or gains from subduction and volcanism, respectively Gain = Volcanism Loss = subduction

Answer 233

Water is constantly transformed via fluxes and stored in reservoirs Water = moves between reservoirs via fluxes

Answer 234

Cycle = driven by solar energy

Answer 235

Solar energy = causes evaportaion of ocean moisture --> water goes to the atmosphere --> then have precipiation of freshwater to land --> water can go to ice + surface water + ground water + biosphere + can go back to ocean

Answer 236

Wtaer can go to ice + surface water + ground water + Biosphere + can go back to ocean

Answer 237

1. Ocean 2. Atompshere 3. Ice 4. Surface water 5. Ground water 6. Biopshere

Answer 238

Way water moves between reservoirs

Answer 239

1. Evaportaion 2. Precipiation 3. Overland flow 4. Infiltaryion 5. Sublimation 6. Transpiration

Answer 240

Smallest part of overall cycle BUT is one of the biggest freshwater resources

Answer 241

1. Porosity 2. Permeability

Answer 242

Porosity + permeability = affect the ability of rocks to contain fluids like water or hydrocarbons and to allow fluids to pass through them

Answer 243

The proportion of void space in a rock, sediment, or soil ***Just amount of space

Answer 244

The degree to which the pores or cracks are interconnected allowing fluids to migrate through the material

Answer 245

Want water to flow into rocks in at least the rate you are pumping water out to be able to keep the well viable ***As you pump water out you want water to flow in and replace it

Answer 246

1. Rock type 2. Extent of cemenation between grains 3. Grain size 4. Shape 5. Sorting (uniformity of grain size)

Answer 247

Typically talking about sedimentary rocks

Answer 248

Have different pore space Some types of rock = more likely to be an aquifer --> some will be more helpful to get water out of

Answer 249

Sedimentarty ***Talking about clastic sedimentary

Answer 250

Finer grain size = pack together more = less pore space Course grain = have more pore space

Answer 251

Igneous and metamorphic rocks are crystalline and have low porosity/perm. unless they are fractured

Answer 252

Greater degree of cementation = lower porosity/perm. Larger grain size = greater porosity/perm. Uniform grain size = greater porosity/perm. Grain shape can also affect porosity/perm by controlling how tightly the grains can be packed together.

Answer 253

Porosity is usually measured as a percentage of void space in the rock Permeability can be expressed as the rate (m/day) of fluid movement through the rock or sediment

Answer 254

Want sandstone + gravel in aquifer

Answer 255

Ground water = Limited resource

Answer 256

Drawing up the water that is locked up in the pore space between sediments

Answer 257

Rely on the water in the surrounding rock to flow in at a rate that is the same as the rate that you are pumping the water out ***Otherwise the well will go dry

Answer 258

Clay = not good aquifer -- usually stops water from moving Even though clay has a lot of water it is not good because it usually blocks water from moving ***High porosity (holds a lot of water) but doesn't let water move efficientley

Answer 259

Not good aquifer because has mix sized = lower Porosity/Permeability

Answer 260

Not good aquifer unless there are fractures

Answer 261

Relies on granite/volcanic rock that is fractured

Answer 262

Cave under ground filled with water

Answer 263

A rock unit that does not transmit water easily -- low P/P ***Prohibits the movemnet of grounwater

Answer 264

A rock unit that holds enough water and tramitts it fast enough to be used as a source of water ***Has sufficicent P/P

Answer 265

1. Sanstones 2. Gravels + Conglomerates

Answer 266

Aquitard can block a layer below it with high P/P --> if have well above the aquitard then the aquitard blocks the water below it from coming through well

Answer 267

Zone in an aquifer where water fills all the accesible pore space ***ZOne where water fills the pore space ***Water in phreatic zone = ground water

Answer 268

The saturation zone is underneath a layer of permeable rock and soil ***The phreatic zone in unconfined aquifer can be recharged by infiltration over the area of the aquifer

Answer 269

Water infiltrates into porous rock under the influence of gravity and the water will accumilate above an impermeable layer

Answer 270

Ground water

Answer 271

The saturation zone is underneath a layer of permeable rock and soil

Answer 272

Recharged by infiltration over the entire area of the aquifer

Answer 273

Rock or soil above the phreatic zone in which the pore space are partially filled with water and partially filled with air (NOT saturated) ***Not good for well

Answer 274

Surface of phreatic zone assuming that the aquifer is not confined

Answer 275

Water table is overlain by an aquitard

Answer 276

No impermeable layer

Answer 277

More rain = phreatic zone rises

Answer 278

A process of infiltration and migration by which groundwater is replenished to the aquifer

Answer 279

1. Can inflitrate from above 2. Can flow laterally

Answer 280

Water in unpumped well in unconfied will rise to the level of the water table

Answer 281

In moist area the water table may intersect thr ground surface --> forms a spring + Stream + lake ***Depression in land might intersect the saturated zone -- water table intersects the stream that is flowing

Answer 282

Stream fed by ground water ***Water will flow into the stream because there is pressure in the pore space = water wants to escape

Answer 283

Most Perennial Streams = gaining stream --> Means the water is flowing year-round ***Found in NE -- less in the west

Answer 284

Streams that are not connected to an aquifer ***Stream = occurs above the water table

Answer 285

Typically found in more arid regions

Answer 286

They intermitenley flow during rain events + Spring melts ***Might not flow year round -- only flow during rain event or spring melt

Answer 287

Usually a source of recharge to the aquifer when they are flowing (Because they will infiltrate the ground when flowing)

Answer 288

Creates negitive pressure -- -- makes the water flow towrads the well from the rest of the aquifer

Answer 289

Creates samller "perched" water table above the regional one Perched water table -- smaller aquifer above the main regional one due to a layer of impermeable rocks in one area ***Shows aquitards prevent water from flowing through

Answer 290

Water is not free to move up and down

Answer 291

Has an aquitard above and below it ***There is some place in the permeable layer where water is able to get in --> when it goes in it will fill up the permeable layer with water -- if it is between two aquitards then the water is confined and will piled up towardsthes the recharge area

Answer 292

Water flows in response to pressure NOT flowing in response to gravity ***If there is more water on top then there is more pressure

Answer 293

Water in an unpumped unconfined aquifer well will rise to the level of the water table

Answer 294

The phreatic zone is bounded above and below by low permeability rocks (aquitards) which prevent free verticle flow of water ***Water can't go up/down

Answer 295

Groundwater may be under pressure -- especially if parts of the aquifer are at higher elevation than others

Answer 296

A well drilled in an confined aquifer where water pressure in the aquifer is high enough to cause water to rise on its own (without pumping) ***Water can rise to the groun surface or just part way up the well

Answer 297

The height to which the water's pressure would raise the water if it were unconfied OR the level that it would rise in a well drilled into an aquifer

Answer 298

Usually some heright above the top of the phreatic zone

Answer 299

Unconfined phreatoc surface. =usually equal to the water table

Answer 300

The elevation to which water will rise above the screened section of a well at a given point in an aquifer ***Represents the total potental mechanical energy of the water

Answer 301

Determines the rates of ground water flow ***represents the slope of the water table between two point Hydraulic gradient = changed in hydrolic head/ change in hydraulic gradients

Answer 302

Ground water flows from high hydraulic gradient to low hydraulic gradient Ground water flows from higher to lower pontiometric surface elevations at a rate propotional to the differences in hydraulic head

Answer 303

The rate of water extraction usually exceed the rate at which water flows in for the surrounding aquifer to replace it ***If withdrawl rates exceed recharge over a long period the regional water table may drop

Answer 304

Circular lowering in the water table around a pumping well when extraction rate exceeds recharge ***IN closley spaced wells the cone of depression may overlap lowing the height of the wtaer table between wells

Answer 305

Cones of depression can form in the pontiometric surface of confined aquifers

Answer 306

Aquifer than supplies chicago

Answer 307

Metes or tens of meters per year

Answer 308

Ex. Arid areas or confined aquifers with few recharge areas HERE -- recharge of significant quantities of grounwater can take decades or centeries -- rates. ofwithdrawl are higher than rates. ofrecharge

Answer 309

Removing water at a rate faster than it will be replaced on a human time scale

Answer 310

Ogallala/high plains aquifer system

Answer 311

Aquifer systems in the central U.S. -- one of the largest aquifers that provides most of the irrigation water that is needed for irrigation in the "bread basket" of the U.S. -- used for crop irrigation ***Being mined since the 1940s -- rates exceed recharge ***Most of the water is ancient and infiltarted into the aquifer at the end of the last ice age from melting glaceiers ***No equivlient source of recharhe to the aquifer exists today

Answer 312

1. Water Mining 2. Land subsindence

Answer 313

Can get subsindence due to extraction of ground water (and oil) Example: 1. Houstan-Galveston in texas 2. Venice -- sinking due to sea level rise + tectionic subsidnce + subsindece due to historic pumping of ground water

Answer 314

In coastal areas -- Freshwater in aquifer may be a lens of freshwater floating on top of more sense salt water ***Their aquifer is just freshwater on top of salt water

Answer 315

Occurs when the freshwater lens is depleted faster than its rate of recharge -- causes the salt water to be pulled up inland and full up the empty pore space - Salt water goes up beneath the cone of depression of freshwater - Well may begin pumping salt or brackish water ***When makes the freshwater lens smaller. =the salt water goes. into fill the pre space

Answer 316

An issue in most coastal aquifers that are used as a source of freshwater Example - Souther Florida Aquifers

Answer 317

Shows saltwater intrusion Southern Flroida = relies in Bisayne Aquifer for its water + mixes it with small amounts. ofthe Floridian Aquifer ***Biscayen Aquifer = at high rise for salt water intrusion

Answer 318

Water can be pumed into a recharge well near the freshwater/slat water interface = increases the hydrolaic head = prevents the salt water from flwoing towards the zone of ground water pumping

Answer 319

1. Increases the amount of impermeable ground cover = reudces the rate of infiltration and recharge 2. Draining ponds and wetlands (to make space for buildings) decreases recharge because there surface featires hold water on the surface inn place wich allow it to infiltrate rather thna moving out of the area as overland flow ***Espcaially bad in confined aquifers with limites recharge area

Answer 320

Artifical pond -- can be used to retain sirface runoff and allow water to slowly infitrate to recharge the aquifer ***It is also used for flood control purposes

Answer 321

Some rock times (limestone + evaporite) = soluble in water --> over time groundwater flwoing through fractires may dissolve away soluble rock and erobe large caverns or caves --> these caves can collapse and cause a sinkhole

Answer 322

Limstone + Evaportite = particulary soluble in water

Answer 323

Caves made from the water flowing throiugh soluble rocks collapse unexpectaly ***May cause propety damage + death

Answer 324

One case where ground water may occur as an underground stream or lake within a cave system

Answer 325

Regions that have rock types that are susceptible to sinkhole formation ***They are characterized by Karst topography -- pockmarked by circular lakes + sinkholes

Answer 326

Pockmarked with sinkholes + circular lakes Example -- found in Florida

Answer 327

4.2 trillion gallons of water fall per day as precipitation 2.8 trillion gallons per day are lost back to the atmosphere because of evaporation and transpiration 1.4 trillion gallons per day are available for use

Answer 328

1. Much of the usable water is lost because of pollution + streams + Surface runoff 2. A lot of the rain falls where it is not needed ***If it goes into a stream it will go into the ocean

Answer 329

150 billion gallons per day is used 1,800 gallons per perons per day in US

Answer 330

Most water is used for industry or agruculture

Answer 331

150 gallons per day ***1 gallon of water is required oer day for drinking

Answer 332

1. Hydroelectic generations 2. Irrigation 3. Public (municipal) water supplies 4. Rural (individual) water supplies and live stock

Answer 333

Hydroelectric generation = biggest user of water BUT not the biggest consumer bacsue most. ofthe water used for thus purpose gets returned to the hydrosphere VS. Irrigation = biggest consumer of liquid freshwater supplied -- most water used for irrigation is lost to crops and evaporation

Answer 334

100 Billion gallons per day = consumed -- the rest is returned to the hydropshere

Answer 335

Water that has been retruned is often returned in an altered or polluted form ***Chemically or physically or Thermally altered

Answer 336

1. Conservation 2. Interbasin water transfer 3. Desalination

Answer 337

Using less water for the same activities Examples: 1. More efficinet drip irrigation methods (biggest potential for savings) 2. More effcincent applianves and indurstrial techniques/equipments

Answer 338

Divert water from where it is avakable but not needed to places where it is needed (often over great distances) ***Often used to supply water for big cities (esocially big cities in arid areas like LA + west U.S)

Answer 339

1. Inefficent -- lots of evapoation loss during trasnport in large aqueducts) 2. Negitive envirnmental effects. insource area (drying up of lakes) 3. Lots of legan and political ussues -- especially as water becomes more scarce

Answer 340

Turn salt water from ocean into freshwater

Answer 341

Filtration/osmosis = cheap BUT can only process limited amounts of water (nit good for loarge scale use)

Answer 342

Evaportae salt water -- condence the vapor to collect the freshwater ***uses fossil fuels or solar energy -- energy intesnive + expensive

Answer 343

Energy intensive/expensive -- would be very expensive for agricultural irrigation -- costs 5-15X more than suing natrual freshwater

Answer 344

LA + mono lake LA aquiduct + other large aquiducts were constructed in california in the 1900s to trasnport water from snowmelt in sierras to water starved cities - Aqueducts = 223 miles long + trasnprots 400,000 acre of feet of water per year - Most of the aquiduct is uncovered --> millions of gallons are lost due to evaporation - 1913 -- waters that used to go from the sierras into hypersaline mono Lake were diverted to the LA aquiduct -- the lake level fell and the lake is becoming unhabitable by organisms (too salty) + is dryong out - Lake = 99g/L

TEST #3 Flashcards

(376 cards)