Test 3 Flashcards by Isabel staats

__ is a mental representation of an object (or event or pattern) [i__]

Concept

internal

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__ consists of the objects in the world that we consider to be representatives of the __; a class of similar objects [e__]

category

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Exemplar-Based View

•Alternative theory to classical and family-resemblance theories

Classical View:
– __-based; __ rules easier than __ rules

Family-Resemblance:
– similarity to __

Exemplar-Based View:
–No single __ __ of a concept
–Concepts are based on __ in memory called __.
-New items categorized based on similarity to __.

rule, conjunctive, disjunctive

prototype

mental representation
episodes, exemplars, exemplars

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Memory for Specific Instances (__ instead of __) * Memory for the __ training exemplars is maintained, even after a more __ representation of the category has been developed. * Amnesiacs with difficulties with episodic memory can categorize stimuli accurately (__ memory), even if they can’t recognize the stimuli from training (__, __ memory) * It is problematic for Exemplar Theory if concept learning takes place independently of __ of specific items * We use both __ and __.

exemplars, prototypes specific, abstract implicit, explicit, episodic memory exemplars, prototypes

•Each theory has difficulty explaining some aspect of __ __. –Prototypes and exemplars both rely on __ for categorization –BUT -- sometimes, surface __ is less important than other factors in categorization •E___

concept formation similarity similarity essentialism

Specific vs Placeholder Essentialism •Specific essentialism: –A category essence is __ and contributes to the __ and __ of the category label. –Example: The essence of water is H2O. •Placeholder essentialism: –A person believes that there is some __ that holds a category together, without knowing just what that __ is. –Ex: A person believes that all samples of water share some inherent, non-obvious property.

known meaning, use essence, essence

Psychological Essentialism Characteristics of Categories Our focus is psychological placeholder essentialism. •Some categories have an underlying true __ that can’t be __ directly –Membership has an i__, g__, or b__ basis –Membership is s__ –Membership is __-__-__ –EXAMPLE: Preschoolers who were told that a baby kangaroo went to live with goats still predicted the kangaroo would hop and have a pouch •Essentialism is a r__ h__.

nature, observed innate, genetic, biological stable all-or-none reasoning heuristic

Evidence for Essentialism: __ Labels Can Trump __ Similarity •4-yr-old kids and adults •20 triplets of pictures •The target shared a category label with one item, but was drawn to resemble the other. (aka: bird drawn to look like similar to bat) •Property projection test: –Bat --> feeds milk to babies –Flamingo -->mashed-up food –What does Bird feed to babies? •Underlying __ outweigh __ similarity, even for __...there’s a developmental shift from __ to __ features

category, perceptual essences, surface children surface, essential

•Essentialist: __-__-__ category membership Vs. •Prototypes: __ structure Can people use essentialist information to make category decisions and still show graded structure effects? YES, Prototype & Essentialist Categories CAN __-__. ex: Grandmothers

all-or-none graded co-exist GRANDMOTHER has a biological, rule-based definition, BUT some grammies are more grandmotherly than others...People may represent both the essential and prototypicality of concepts simultaneously

Development * Does how we __ the world change as we get older? * Perhaps not surprisingly, __. •Children’s concepts shift from use of __, __ features to use of __ features to categorize __, __ kinds ex: Can a Raccoon Change Into a Skunk? - what did younger kids say? older kids? * Developmental shift from __ to __ features for biological kinds. * All ages willing to change categories for __.

conceptualize, yes perceptual, surface essentialist natural, biological younger kids used surface features and said it can become a skunk and as they got older there was a developmental shift from characteristic to essential features. characteristic, essential artifacts.

Developmental shift from ___ to ___ features * 5.5-10 yr olds shown descriptions of people or objects * Can this person be a robber? * Younger children used __ features * Older children used __ features * Shift to __ features for non-biological (__) categories

characteristic, defining surface defining essential nominal

Hierarchical Semantic Network * C__ & Q__: First model of semantic memory * Each concept is represented by a __ in memory * Concepts are related by __

Collins and Quillian node links

•Models of semantic memory 1. How knowledge is __ 2. How knowledge is used in __ and __.

structured thinking, reasoning

Processing in Semantic Networks •Cognitive __ –Ex. All birds fly, so... _____ •To answer a question, search memory –Each word activates its __ –Do the two paths to the root __?

economy All birds fly, so attach fly to ‘bird’ and not ‘robin’ node intersect

How to Test Hierarchical Organization in Semantic Memory? •Category __ tasks •Reaction times (RT): T or F –Faster for __ than __. –Faster for information __ together (fewer __) •__ tests (fastest to slowest reaction times) –“A canary is a bird” –“A canary is a fish” •__ tests (fastest to slowest reaction times) –Level 0: “A canary can sing” –Level 1: “A canary can fly” –Level 2: “A canary has skin”

verification true, false closer links concept property

Problems with C&Q’s Semantic Nets •The domain of “__ __” is a unique taxonomy •Verification time depends on other factors (__, __). –“A canary is a bird.” verifies __ than “A penguin is a bird.” •___ effects often go away when these factors are included: –“A shark can move.” verifies __ than “An animal can move.” •Reverse distance effects for __ statements: –“Canary is a tiger” __ than “Canary is a carrot”

living things typicality, frequency faster hierarchical faster false slower

Spreading-Activation Model * __ network (not ___) * Connections vary on __ strength * __ spreads along links to explain __ effects * Explains why “Canary is a bird” verifies __ than a “Penguin is a bird”

associative, hierarchical associative activation, priming faster

Semantic Memory in ACT-R * Seeing, hearing, reading a word activates the __ in memory * __ activation •Activation speed and strength depend on: –Number of __ on a __. –Activation __ ex: dodo bird

concept spreading links, node frequency 1. The dodo, a bird, was discovered in Australia 2. The dodo does not fly 3. The dodo eats flowers

•Maybe memory only uses the global __-___ of words to build concepts? –Sematic memory is constructed out of context-based __ among words, instead of meaning or features –__ similarity of words define the relations between any two concepts Hyperspace Analogue to Language (HAL) •Input 300,000,000 words from internet discussion groups •Window of processing = 10 words •Examples: –__ and __ are conceptually linked because they appear in similar __ (are close to similar words in the 10-word window)

co-occurences associations contextual road and street contexts

The Basic Level •Categories are ___ organized •The Basic Level is psychologically “___” –How we (generally) __ –Most __ level; not too __ or too __. –Cross-__ and cross-__ preference

hierarchically privileged communicate informative general, specific cross-cultural, cross-linguistic

Semantic Memory and Expertise •__ changes the level used to label objects –Bird experts used the __ level, but novices used the __ level •Basic Level & categorization changes with __ –Three kinds of tree experts classified trees differently, depending on their __

expertise subordinate, basic goals objectives

Concepts are Flexible •Ad hoc or Improvised Concepts –Sometimes we make __ on the __ –__, and not dependent on a stable concept in _ _ _.

categories, fly situational, LTM

Rational Thinking * “Within cognitive science, thinking is often used to refer to r__, d__ m__, p__ s__, and c__.” * “Rational thinking is thinking that is maximally effective in enabling us to achieve our __.” * “The term rational thinking can also be applied to thinking that conforms to the rules of __ or to mathematical or statistical __.”

reasoning, decision making, problem solving, and creativity goals logic, laws

Concepts are F__ •C__ influences category decisions •Cup or bowl? (Labov, 1973) –No clear __ –C__ (what was in the container) shifted category judgments •Concepts are d__

flexible context boundary context dynamic

Cortical Areas Related to Naming Deficits __ __ damage can cause impairments in identifying and/or retrieving information about __ AND __ objects

temporal lobe living, nonliving

Evidence from patients with selective naming deficits for different types of concepts suggests that information about natural kinds (__) and artifactual kinds (non-living) are stored in __ parts of the brain. Converging evidence from patients with brain damage to different areas of the temporal lobe, and PET imaging from healthy controls showed consistent organization of semantic memory: nonliving things stored in the __ ___ __ __ and living things stored in the __ __ ___ __. Alternate explanations for selective deficits of living or nonliving things include the ___-___ theory and the __ ___ __ Hypothesis

living, non-living different left posterior temporal cortex left anterior temporal lobe sensory functional organized unitary content

How does someone really know something? ``` •Knowledge = __ __ __ –Subject knows that ‘__’ (p) is true IF i.p is __ ii.S __ that p iii.S is __ in believing that p ``` * True p = The world _ the way _ says it is. * Belief = __ p is true. * Justification = e__ d__, t__, d__

true justified belief proposition true believes justified is P accept empirical data, testimony, deduction

* Justification requires __. * The better your __ knowledge, the easier it is to recognize __. * No scientific theory is absolutely __, but __ thinking and the __ method make science __-____. * Established scientific theories are probably ___ correct, but not __.

evidence background, errors certain, skeptical, scientific, self-correcting approximately, infallible

Tools for Critical (Skeptical) Thinking 1. ___ confirmation of the “facts”. 2. Substantive debate by __. 3. There are no __; at most experts. 4. Don’t get overly attached to your ideas (__ __)

independent experts authorities confirmation bias

•Confirmation bias – do not favor a hypothesis just because you __ it or you __ it to be true. •De-personalize the debate: –Consider questions, evidence, and arguments as i__ a__ objects that are not the personal property of any one thinker, but are rather __ property, and the subject of dispassionate contemplation. –Criticize the __ and not the __ who defends a position! (This is the so-called __ ___ fallacy.) –Arguments from __ carry little weight.

formulated, want impersonal abstract communal position, person ad hominem authority

Tools for Critical Thinking 5. __ working hypotheses 6. T__, f__ hypotheses 7. Q__ when possible 8. Use __ experiments w/ __. 9. Use valid l__ and s__ methods. 10. Occam’s Razor - KISS - explain

multiple testable, falsifiable quantify designed, controls logical, statistical the simplest of competing theories be preferred to the more complex (keep it simple and short)

Fallacies of Logic and Rhetoric * Logical fallacies: mistaken steps in __, p__ are identified correctly, but the attempted __ transitions among those p__ are not made properly. * Rhetorical fallacies are __. They don’t even identify the __ on which the argument at hand should be concentrating. The person is trying to __ the audience.

reasoning, propositions, inferential, propositions worse propositions deceive

Rhetorical Fallacies: Argumentum ad hominem (at the __) Attacking the __ instead of the __. ex: Hilary Clinton and Sarah Huckabee

person arguer, argument Hillary Clinton is a nasty woman or Sarah Huckabee Sanders is fat

Rhetorical Fallacies: Argument from authority Saying that because an __ says it, your argument must be __. ex: urban meyer

authority, true OSU is #1 bc Urban Meyer says that this is the best OSU football team ever

Rhetorical Fallacies: Argument from adverse consequences (appeal to __) Premise asserts ___ to divert from the actual argument ex: abuse trial

fear consequences Defendant must be found guilty of abuse, otherwise other men will abuse their wives

Rhetorical Fallacies: Appeal to ignorance Whatever has not been __ is true. I don’t know ‘X’ so ‘Y’ must be true. ex: UFOs

disproven No evidence that UFOs are NOT visiting earth, so UFOs exist.

Rhetorical Fallacies: Special pleading Making an __ when the original claim is proven false ex: psychic

exception Psychic is disproven, but then says you have to believe for him to see the future

Rhetorical Fallacies: Begging the question (circular reasoning) The __ is included in the __ ex: death penalty, PHD's

conclusion, premise We must have the death penalty to discourage violentcrime. PhDs are smart because they have PhDs.

Rhetorical Fallacies: Strawman ___ an argument to make it easier to attack ex: environmentalists

misrepresenting Environmentalists care more about owls than people

Rhetorical Fallacies: False dichotomy Only considering two __ when there’s a ___ of possibilities ex: solution/problem

extremes, continuum If you are not part ofthe solution, you are part of the problem

Rhetorical Fallacies: Slippery slope If __ happens, then horrible __ will happen, so we can’t let __ happen ex: gay marriage

A, Z, A If we allow gay marriage, then people will be able to marry animals

Rhetorical Fallacies: Equivocation (__ words) __ language ex: reduction in force

weasel euphemistic Reduction-In-Force. We are right-sizing, not down-sizing

Logical Fallacies Affirming the consequent If _, then _. _. Therefore _.

A, B. B. A

Logical Fallacies Denying the antecedent (__ error) If _, then _; Not _, therefore not _.

inverse A, B. A. B.

Logical Fallacies Non sequitur (“It does not __”) __ does not follow from its ___. ex: God and nation

follow conclusion, premises Our nation will prevail because God is great

Logical Fallacies Correlation is not causation A perceived __ between two variables does not mean that one ___ the other ex: global warming and pirates

relationship, caused In the last 200 years, global temperature increased & the number of pirates decreased. Pirates must cool the world

Logical Fallacies Post hoc, ergo propter hoc (“It happened __, so it was __ by.”) Like __ is not __, but with events instead of variables ex: furnace

after, caused correlation, causation We never had a problem with the furnace until you moved in

Decisions involve formulating and choosing courses of __, based on one’s __, using any __ that is available. “Rational thinking is thinking that is maximally effective in enabling us to achieve our __.”

action, goals, evidence goals

Humans as Rational Thinkers Expected Value Theory •Expected __ theory is a normative theory –Normative theory: prescribes what people __ do, not what they __ do –__ theory: what they actually do) •Every decision is viewed as a __ –The rational choice is to select the option with the highest __ __

value should, actually descriptive gamble expected value

Expected Utility Theory * Expected utility theory is similar to expected value theory, just replace o__ “__” with s__ “__” * The rational choice is to select the option with the highest expected __. -explains how people are __ adverse

objective value, subjective utility utility risk

•People are loss __. –Losses hurt more (≈_x) than gains satisfy. * This choice is still consistent with rationality! * __ Effects are more evidence for loss aversion

averse 2 framing

To calculate expected value you need o__, p___, and how much they're w__ o__ ( i ) occur with some p__ (pi.) _ _ would say 50% of 3 million is rational _ _ would say take the 1 million (subjective satisfaction)

outcomes, probabilities, worth outcomes, probability EV (expected value) EU (expected utility)

Humans as Irrational Thinkers (less-than-rational) * Decisions made under conditions of ___ * __ and __ impact decision making * Heuristics – __ decision making strategies, but do not guarantee __ and may lead to less-than-optimal (__) decisions •Biases – __ to think a certain way that can lead to systematic __ from rationality

uncertainty emotions and habits general, success, irrational tendencies, deviations

Irrational Thinking Failures in gathering evidence •Availability heuristic: basing __ on easily __ information –Example: vacation/malaria –Example: infrequent events

decisions, recalled Avoiding a vacation spot because of memory of malaria outbreak People overestimated risk of dying from infrequent events (botulism, tornado)

Availability Heuristic: Dread Risk •Dread risk: people are overly concerned about situations in which many people might be __/__ –Ex. 9/11 –Ex. vaccinations

killed/hurt Post-9/11 decrease in air passengers, and increase of car fatalities Failure to vaccinate children

Irrational thinking: Biases Failures in gathering evidence •Anchoring effects: the __ point from which we begin reasoning can affect our __. –Problem A: 1 x 2 x 3 x 4 x 5 x 6 x 7 x 8 •Median answer = __ –Problem B: 8 x 7 x 6 x 5 x 4 x 3 x 2 x 1 •Median answer = ___ * Correct answer = ____ * Starting point acts as a reference (__) for making the __.

starting, thinking 512 2250 40,320 anchor, estimate

Anchoring can occur when the reference point is unrelated to the decision! People asked "what are the last two digits of your social security number?" People then asked "How much would you pay for this bottle of wine if you were to bid on it?" Those who had __ social security number digits would bid __.

bigger, higher

Irrational ThinkingFailures in using evidence •Representativeness heuristic: tendency to give the greatest weight to occurrences that resemble or are similar to __ __. •Ex: Which sequence of coin flips is most likely? –H-T-H-T-H-T-H –T-H-H-T-T-H-T –H-H-H-H-H-H-H –Probability is the __, but one “looks” more __ than the others

past events same random

Irrational Thinking Failures in using evidence •Confirmation (Myside) Bias: decisions based on our own __ instead of objective __. __ bias to choose the evidence you “like” 1. People seek evidence to __ their position 2. People disregard evidence that __ their view, and give more __ to evidence that supports their view

beliefs, evidence selection support contradicts, weight

Common Example of Confirmation Bias •Illusory Correlations: people perceive a __ between variables, despite lack of objective __ –Examples: •S__ and h__ •V__ and a__

relationship, evidence sugar and hyperactivity vaccines and autism

Overcoming Confirmation Bias * Rational thinking is often ___ of measures of cognitive ability (__). * Tendency to avoid bias unrelated to __ ability! •To avoid Confirmation Bias –Actively construct alternative __ that would/could explain your position –Seek ___ evidence

independent, intelligence cognitive hypotheses disconfirming

Irrational Thinking Failures in using evidence •When we make decisions, frequently we draw a conclusion from __ pieces of information ``` •Inductive reasoning or statistical reasoning –Depends on q__ and q__ of information •Law of __ numbers •B__ rates •C__ Fallacy ```

many quantity, quality large base conjunction

Law of Large Numbers •Small sample sizes do not yield ___ results –The __ the sample of observations, the greater the chances that the result will match the true result •Beware __ sample sizes!

generalizable larger small

Base Rates •Donald is a quiet man. Is he more likely to be a salesman or a librarian? •People (even experts) do not take into account base rates when evaluating evidence –Sales is a more common profession than librarian. ___, it’s more likely that Donald is a salesman •Irrational because we substitute an estimate of __ with an estimate of __ (we use the ___ heuristic)

statistically probability, similarity representativeness

Conjunction Fallacy •85% of people chose option 2 •Probability of 2 events is NEVER __ than the probabilities of either event alone Pr[Linda is a bank teller] = 0.8 Pr[Linda is a feminist] = 0.5 Pr[Linda is a bank teller and a feminist] = 0.8 x 0.5 = 0.4 •___ heuristic in action

larger representativeness

Framing Effects * Two alternative programs to combat a disease have been proposed: Treatment A and Treatment B. Which would you favor?” * Options with the SAME __ are preferred __, depending on how they are __. •If the frame describes the choice in terms of __ (400 will die), decision makers tend to be __ __. – they prefer to gamble to avoid the loss (__ __) •If the frame describes the choice in terms of __ (save 200), decision makers tend to be __ __. – they prefer to __ to what they already have •Example: C__ ch__ when decisions were framed as __, people were loss aversive and chose a car with more options than when they were framed as __.

outcome, differently, framed losses risk seeking loss averse gains risk averse hold consumer choice deletions, additions

•Induction is the capacity to extend knowledge to __ instances of a __. ``` •Move from s___ o__ to g__ c__ –Emerald #1 is green. –Emerald #2 is green. ... –Emerald #N is green. –No non-green emeralds have been observed so far. –All emeralds are green. ``` •Essentialism: Category-based inferences for __ (bird, fish, rabbit), for __ __ (gold, cotton), and for __ __ (boy, girl, smart).

novel, category specific observations, general conclusions animals, natural substances, and social categories

* In Deduction, one assumes that __ are true and then seeks to determine what __ follow from the premises * Move from general premise to specific conclusions ex: dog/mammal ex2: tree/roots

premises, conclusions general premise, specific conclusions –If this animal is a dog, then it is a mammal.–This animal is a dog–It is a mammal –All trees have roots.–This oak is a tree.–This oak has roots.

S__–All trees have roots.–This oak is a tree.–This oak has roots. •First two statements are __ (pieces of information) •Last statement is the __ C__ R__–If this animal is a dog, then it is a mammal.–This animal is a dog–It is a mammal •If A is the __ •Then B is the __ •Syllogistic and conditional reasoning can be used __

syllogisms premises conclusion conditional reasoning antecedent consequent together

The Virtue of Valid Arguments •An argument may be __ even though every proposition in it is __. ex: aphrodite/invisible •The virtue of valid arguments is not that they are guaranteed to be __, but that they are guaranteed to be __ ___.

valid, false :All men are invisible.Aphrodite is a man.Aphrodite is invisible. true, truth preserving

Deduction: Sound Arguments •“If there is a chain of argument, every link in the chain must work (including the __) – not just most of them.” •A sound argument is an argument that: –Is d___ v___ AND –All its p___ are true. –Then the c___ must be true also. It is no less certain than the premises themselves.

premises deductively valid premises conclusion

Modus Ponens (Affirming the Antecedent) -If _ then _ _ is true so conclude that _ is true. (conclusion is __) ex: dog/mammal

A, B A, B, valid If this animal is a dog, then it is a mammal. This animal is a dog. Conclusion: it is a mammal.

Modus Tollens (Denying the Consequent) -If _ then _ _ is false so conclude that _ is false. (conclusion is __) ex: dog/mammal

A, B B, A, valid If this animal is a dog, then it is a mammal. It is not a mammal. Conclusion: This animal is not a dog.

Affirming the Consequent: -If _ then _ _ is true, cannot conclude that _ is true. (conclusion is __) ex: dog/mammal

A, B B, A, invalid If this animal is a dog, then it is a mammal. It is a mammal. Conclusion: this animal is a dog. (invalid)

Denying the Antecedent: -If _ then _. _ is false, cannot conclude that _ is false.(conclusion is _) ex: dog/mammal

A, B A, B, invalid If this animal is a dog, then it is a mammal. This animal is not a dog. Conclusion: this animal is not a mammal. (invalid)

Content Effects in Deductive Reasoning * Logical validity depends only on the __ (or __) of the argument. * It does not depend on the specific __ of the statements. * However, people are systematically (and often erroneously) affected by the __.

structure, form content content

Context Effects in Deductive Reasoning Four-Card Selection Task •“If a card has a vowel on one side, then it must have an even number on the other.” –Card 1: H –Card 2: E –Card 3: 6 –Card 4: 7 •Which card(s) do you have to turn in order to determine whether or not the rule is true for this set of cards?

E and 7

Drinking / Checking ID Version ``` •“If a person is drinking alcohol, he or she must be at least 21 years old.” –Person 1:Drinking: ?Age: 16 –Person 2:Drinking: ?Age: 22 –Person 3:Drinking: Coke Age: ? –Person 4:Drinking: Beer Age: ? ``` •Who has to be checked?

Person 1 and person 4

Selection Task: Results * People make a lot of mistakes on the abstract (four-card) version of the task:–Card 1: H–Card 2: E–Card 3: 6–Card 4: 7 * Almost everyone reasons correctly in the real-life versions! * Content effect: __ problems are harder than __ problems in deductive reasoning

abstract, concrete

Belief Bias in Deductive Reasoning * Belief bias: We are more likely to accept an __ argument when the __ agrees with our beliefs * Similar to ___ bias ex: Invalid, Believable (92%) •No addictive things are inexpensive •Some cigarettes are inexpensive. •Therefore, some addictive things are not cigarettes.

invalid, conclusion confirmation

Theories of Deductive Reasoning: Formal Rules Theory * Hypothesis: Each person has m__ l__, an internal set of __ logical rules and a set of __ for using them. * Prediction: The rules should apply to every task with the same logical __. * But there are c__ e__ on reasoning. (not a good theory)

mental logic abstract processes structure content effects

Theories of Deductive Reasoning: Memory Cuing Theory * Hypothesis: Each person has a large __ of specific __ stored in memory. * This theory has the opposite problem to the __ __ __. * The scenarios are too __ and cannot easily account for the human ability to reason about __ situations.

collection, scenarios formal rules theory specific, unfamiliar

Theories of Deductive Reasoning Mental Models •Deductive reasoning requires building a mental model –Mental model: representation of a __; how things __ in the world Reasoning is easier when it’s easier to build a mental model: –C__ problems –Only __ mental model is required –When the __ is stated first (e.g. You may see the movie, if you finish your homework)

state, work concrete one consequent

Pragmatic Reasoning Schemas •We use pragmatic reasoning schemas instead of __ memory or __ __ of logic, for some __ situations –Schemas for p__, o__. Modus Ponens/modus tollens If A, then B. A is true so B •If you want to use the iPad, then you must first make your bed. •If a worker is injured on the job, then employer must pay medical bills. * Abstract Wason 4-card selection task is harder than ‘concrete’ selection task because abstract form does not fit any __ __ schema * Training examples from f__, c__ schemas improved abstract selection task performance more than training in a__, f__ logic

episodic, formal rules, learned permission, obligation pragmatic reasoning familiar, concrete abstract, formal

Dual Process Theoriesof Reasoning * System 1•F__ •A__•E__•U__•H__ processes * System 2•S__•E__•L__•C__•A__ processes * We use System _ most of the time * System _ can override System _, provided the person has the k__ and the o__ to deploy it.

fast, automatic, emotional, unconscious, heuristic processes slow, effortful, logical, conscious, analytical processes system 1 2, 1 knowledge, opportunity

Are we Rational or Irrational? Irrational: D___ •Person’s inability to think rationally despite possessing adequate __. Why? –Lack of c__ processing (c__ m__) –Lack of u__ (knowledge of p__, l__ & scientific __) –R__ error –H__ and e__ •Heuristics and biases are cognitive __

Dysrationalia intelligence cognitive (cognitive miser) understanding (probability, logic, scientific inference) random habits and emotions illusions

Are we Rational or Irrational? We are Irrational, but it’s ok... •Human reasoning doesn’t have to be __, it just have to be “__ __” •Heuristics and biases are __ –F__ and f__ heuristics: s__ cognitive mechanisms can make decisions as well as c__ statistical models

optimal, good enough adaptive fast, frugal simple, complex

Bounded Rationality * Decision making is constrained by limited __, cognitive __, and t__. * Satisficing (s__ + s__): pick a strategy that meets our standards for an adequate (not __) s__.

information, ability, time satisfy+suffice optimal, solution

Decision Making and Happiness maximizers: exhaustively seek the b__, c__ decisions with others, expend more t__ and e__, __ with outcomes. satisficers: a__ good enough, don't obsess over other o__, can move on after d__, __ with outcomes.

best, compare, time/energy, unhappier accept, options, deciding, happier

The paradox of choice(or why choice makes people miserable) 1. R__ and a__ r__–We are less satisfied with the result of our choice than we would be if we had fewer options 2. O__ c__–“Commitment” reduces the satisfaction we get from our choice 3. E__ of e__–We expect perfection, when we have more options 4. S__-b__–You are responsible if you are dissatisfied, when there are many options

regret, anticipated regret opportunity costs escalation of expectations self-blame

Definition of a Problem •“A person is confronted with a problem when he __ something and does not know immediately what series of __ he can perform to get it” –Present (or initial) state – not s__. –G__ state – more satisfactory. –Operators (or moves) – change one __ into a different __. –Constraints – r__, r__, b__... –Solution – a sequence of v__ moves from the i__ state to the g__.

wants, actions satisfactory goal state, state restrictions, rules, budgets valid, initial, goal

The Tower of Hanoi * __ state: All disks on peg 1 * __ state: All disks on peg 3 •C__: –Move only one disk at a time –May not place a larger disk on top of a smaller one * S__: Board configurations * M__ / O__: Transitions between states * S__: A path to the goal state (#8)

initial goal constraints states moves/operators solution

Well- vs. Ill-Defined Problems •Well-defined problem: the __ state, g__ state, possible o__, and c__ are all known .•Ill-defined problem: one or more components are not __ at the onset. Part of the problem is to figure out the __ elements.

initial, goal, operators, constraints specified, missing

How Do People Solve Problems?Different Perspectives 1.“Business as usual”/Analytical view: –Emphasizes the role of k__, a__, and h__. –__ cognitive processing 2.Insight (Aha!) view/Special Process view: –“Think outside the box!” –Special process(es): I__, i__, ... •Endpoints on a c__, not sharp d__.

knowledge, algorithms, heuristics ordinary insight, incubation continuum, divisions

How do people solve problems? Approaches to solving problems: * Weak methods: g__, non-__ approaches * Strong methods: t__-d__, d__-specific approaches (__); apply d__ to the problem * Strong and weak problem solving methods are on a __ reflecting the __ possessed by the person working on the problem

general, non-specific top-down, domain-specific (expertise), directly continuum, knowledge

•For some problems, a __ sequence of moves is available that __ a solution –Algorithms: a set of operations that always produces the __ solution –Ex. Math operations, formulas (__ methods)

specified, guarantees correct strong

•Exhaustive search of the problem space (__ method) –Construct a word out of YRT vs. GMAANRAS –Combinatorial Explosion: Exhaustive search results in 40,320 possibilities! –Tic-tac-toe: exhaustive search of the problem space is feasible –Chess: problem space has 1040 positions and 10 to the 120games •Search must be __ and __.

weak | guided, selective

__ Methods •Heuristics: rules of thumb; do not __ a solution, but may __ a solution –H__ c__ – compare current & goal states and pick an operator that makes progress toward the goal –W__ b__ – start at the goal and work towards the initial state –M__-e__ analysis – compare current state to the goal state. What means do I have to make these more alike?

weak guarantee, facilitate hill climbing working backward means-end analysis

Problem Solving Research Methods: Verbal Protocols * Please think aloud! * SEND+MOREMONEY * “OK, let’s try D=1. Then Y=E+1...” •Verbal protocols: t__ and a__ of people’s verbalizations as they solve a problem B__ K__ Can Narrow the Search Dramatically

transcription, analysis background knowledge

Strong Methods: ExpertisePattern Recognition •For a chess master, playing chess is at a __-__ pattern recognition (memory) process. –Many times, the masters simply looked at the board and saw or recognized the good moves. –Masters focused on what turned out to be the best move. –Less-skilled players spent time thinking about moves that the masters never considered. •Experts can use __ methods, which are acquired through l__ (10 year rule!)

top-down strong, learning

Expert v. Novice Differences in Problem Solving •Novices focus on __ features –Pulleys, mass •Experts focus on underlying __ –F=MA

surface principles

•Analogies are a commonly used strategy in problem solving –Relationship between two __ situations, problems or concepts •Base: the __ situation •Target: the __ situation •The __ is applied to the __ •Strong & weak methods on a __

similar familiar novel base, target continuum

“Stages” of Analogy-Making * E__ (representation building) of the t__ problem * R__ of an appropriate analog (or __) from LTM * M__ the base to the target to find corresponding elements * T__ of knowledge from the base to the target

encoding, target retrieval, base mapping transfer

Analogical Transfer •Target problem: Radiation •Base problem: Military •Three groups of subjects: –Control: Solve problem (radiation)–Transfer/No Hint: Read/remember military problem, later solve radiation problem –Transfer/Hint: Read/remember military, get hint, solve radiation •HINT: In solving problem, you may find that one of the stories you read before will give you a hint for solving the problem Analog Retrieval is Hard •Transfer participants knew about the Military Problem; Control participants did not. •Days later, all were given the Radiation Problem to solve. Three exp. groups: –No memory: ~10% solved the Radiation Problem –Remember military: ~30% solved it –Remember military + Hint: ~75% solved it •Conclusion: The main obstacle was to __ the __. __ was easier.

retrieve, source mapping

Why is Retrieval hard? •We think __, but transfer requires __ thinking –It’s easier to retrieve a base problem when the __ __ are similar to the target problem •But, surface similarity can be __ –Mapping is improved when the solution of the base problem in encoded in g__, s__ terms... •But, it can be difficult to __ the base problem when it is encoded in general terms

concretely, abstract surface features misleading general, schematic retrieve

Business-as-Usual vs. Special Process Analytic vs. Insight •Analytic problems: Finding the solution typically involves i__, s__-_-__ progress –Examples: Tower of Hanoi, chess, algebra –“Business as usual” information processing •Insight problems: The solution often comes “in a flash of __” –__! Experience –Often preceded by an __, where there appear to be no options left to try.

incremental, step-by-step insight aha! impasse

Insight: History •Thorndike: Animals use t__-__-___ to escape puzzle boxes, not __. •G__ psychology’s response to Thorndike –Problems are like perceptual phenomenon that can be __ into solvable representations –Thorndike’s cats had no chance to __ the problem –Apes show “__” when they have opportunity to __ the problem

trial-and-error, insight gestalt restructured restructure insight, restructure

Examples: The Nine-Dot Problem * Connect all nine dots by drawing four straight lines without lifting your pencil from the paper. * Hint: Think out of the box! * __ makes finding the solution difficult

fixation

Examples: The Candle Problem * Attach the candle to a wooden wall, so that you can read by its light, using only the materials shown in the picture. * F___ f___ makes finding the solution difficult

functional fixedness

Problem Restructuring * Gestalt psychologists: More than one __ is possible * Requires a new ___ of the entire problem situation after an __ * Often sudden. ___!

interpretation conceptualization, impasse aha!

“Warmth” Ratings Evidence for “Special Process”? analytic problems: __ progress insight problems: sudden __

gradual increase

Evidence for the Business-as-Usual View * Insight requires some __ knowledge (e.g. Kohler’s apes) * Ordinary cognitive processes (__) can lead to Insight; an impasse does not trigger a s__ i__ process * The fact that a problem is solved in a sudden Aha! does not mean that no progress has been made __ the Aha!

prior- apes that had been in captivity whole life couldn't use branch insight to solve problem recognition, special insight before

Hybrid Model | •Incorporates __ & __ __ views

analytical, special process

The Science of Creativity •We will approach creativity as a __-__ process which can be __ studied

top-down objectively

Problem Solving and Creative Thinking and Novelty •To call something a problem, the situation must be __. Hence creative thinking... –It’s not a problem if you can recall a __ to a previously solved problem. •Creative thinking occurs when a person __ produces something that is __ to them. –The critical element in calling some outcome creative is that it be __

novel solution intentionally, novel new

Watson & Crick: Conclusions * Even though the product revolutionized genetics, the cognitive process of discovery was relatively __. * Analogical transfer: Watson & Crick used Linus Pauling’s helical model of alpha-keratin as the __ for their model of DNA. * Incremental progress: Early models were incorrect, so Watson & Crick tested new __ and acquired new __.

straightforward foundation hypotheses, information

Guernica: Conclusions •Even though the final product is exceptional, Guernica shows no evidence of extraordinary c__ p__. – no leaps outside the box. •Picasso was __ on his own earlier work and on that of his predecessors.

cognitive process building

What can we conclude from two examples? •In many cases, creativity involves “__ thought” –__-__ knowledge –I__ progress –Hard work (__ practice & the 10-year rule)

ordinary top-down incremental deliberate

The 10-Year Rule in Creativity •__+ years of __ to a discipline are required for world-class achievement. ``` •Historical studies (Hayes, 1989; etc.): –76 composers – 500 masterworks –131 painters –Scientists (Raskin, 1936) –Mathematicians (Gustin, 1985) –Physicians (Patel & Groen, 1991) ```

10 | commitment

Expertise and Talent •Talent (or “gift”) for a domain – innate capacity to function well within the domain. * Deliberate __ differentiated between musicians’ skill levels, not __ * Criticism: research explains the __ to achieve world-class skill but not the __ * See __-seeking hypothesis

practice, talent how, why niche

Information Processing Approaches •Creative thinking as ___-__ problem solving –Creative thinking builds on the __. –It is dependent on __. –It advances in __ steps rather than through great __ outside the box.

heuristic-based past expertise small, leaps

Heuristics in (Creative) Scientific Thinking •__ studied heuristics in four molecular biology labs •Heuristics (& __ processes) are important in creativity: –Apply heuristics that generate ideas for __ experimentation. –If the results are unexpected, (> half were unexpected!), apply other heuristics to repair or __ the hypothesis •__ researchers were more likely to abandon their previous hypotheses in the face of negative findings than __ experienced researchers because the experienced researchers were used to negative results.

Dunbar social further change experienced, less

Flow and Creativity •M__ Csikszentmihalyi, a leader in creativity research & positive psychology •When do people feel happy? –Watching TV? –Altered states via pot or alcohol? –Buying expensive toys, clothes? •Creativity and the challenge of discovery provide __ motivating rewards for some people Flow and Optimal Experience •Flow: a state of heightened f__ and i__ in activities such as art, play, work •Most likely to be experienced when a person is c__ and has the s__ to meet the challenge!

mihaly intrinsically focus, immersion challenged, skills

Test 3 Flashcards

(144 cards)