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Test #3 Flashcards

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1
Q

What do scientists believe in terms of our acquiring of language?

A

Scientists believe that humans have evolved an innate capacity for acquiring language.
They believe language and memory evolved at same time

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2
Q

What does the Surface structure of language refer to?

What does the Deep structure of language refer to?

A

Surface Structure: how symbols are combined (syntax)

Deep Structure: the underlying meaning of those symbols (semantics)

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3
Q

What’s the 5-rank hierarchy of the arrangement of language elements?
Demonstrate using the word ‘players’

A

phoneme (pley + ēr + z) –> morpheme (play + er + s) –> words (players) –> phrase –> sentences

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4
Q

Top-Down Processing vs. Bottom-Up Processing

~how it influences us understanding and producing language ~

A

Top-Down Processing: our concepts and ideas changing the way we perceive things we read or hear

 - eg, Speech Segmentation - relies on our existing knowledge of the language to know when the word begins and ends
 - eg, Pragmatics - the knowledge of social context to communicate properly

Bottom-Up Processing: individual elements are combined to form a unified perception

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5
Q

How do biological factors influence language acquisition in children?
The steps of it
LAD

A

Children have a LAD= language acquisitor device which is an innate mechanism that switches different grammar rule on/off.
In infancy, babies can perceive all the phonemes of every language.
6-12 months, their speech discrimination narrows to include only the sounds of their language.
4-5 yrs, have learned simple grammatical rules for combining words

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6
Q

How do social learning factors influence language acquisition?

A

Provided that the child is exposed to a linguistic environment (LASS= language acquisition support system) during a sensitive period (early childhood to puberty), their innate mechanisms (LAD) will permit the learning and production of language.
aka, when LAD and LASS interact mutually, normal language development occurs.

It’s not an imitative process because children’s language is different from adult.

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7
Q

What factors affect the learning of a second language and its effects on thinking?
Is there a sensitive or critical period for learning it?
How does bilingualism affect the brain?

A

It appears a second language is most easily mastered and fluently spoken if learnt during a sensitive period (early childhood to mid-adolescence).
Bilingual children tend to perform better than monolingual children on cognitive tasks.
The languages share a common neural network if learned to a high proficiency.

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8
Q

Does research support the view that apes can acquire human language?

A

At best, apes are able to communicate with symbols at a level of a human toddler. So they don’t think they can learn syntax.

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9
Q

Distinguish between Deductive reasoning and Inductive reasoning.
Why is deductive most valid?
Why is Inductive bad?

A

Deductive: we reason from general principles (gravity exists) to a conclusion (thus, i’ll roll down this hill) about a specific case.
- most valid because the conclusions cannot be false if the premises are true.
Inductive: reasoning from specific facts/observations to a general principle. (this guy John’s eyes are blue. Thus, all Johns have blue eyes)
- cannot yield certainty.!!!

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10
Q

What are the 3 ways that deductive reasoning can be unsuccessful?

A

1) failure to select the proper info
2) failure to apply rules properly in novel situations
3) belief bias: the tendency to abandon logical rules in favour of personal beliefs

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11
Q

What are the 4 steps for Problem Solving

A

1) understanding the nature of the problem
2) establishing initial hypotheses or potential solutions
3) testing the solutions against existing evidence to rule out hypotheses that do not apply
4) evaluating results

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12
Q

What are problem-solving schemas?

How do you get expertise?

A

Problem-solving schemas: shortcut methods for solving specialized classes of problems. They are stored in long-term memory.

Expertise comes from acquiring a range of successful problem-solving schemas through training and practical experience, and knowing when to apply them.

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13
Q

Distinguish between Algorithms and Heuristics.

A

Algorithms are formulas/procedures that guarantee correct solutions.
Heuristics are general problem-solving strategies (may or may not provide correct solutions). -ex, consonants are usually at ends of words.

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14
Q

Describe the means-ends analysis and sub-goal analysis.

A

Mean-ends analysis: commonly used heuristic in which you identify your current situation and desired state, and what it will take to get there.

Sub-goal analysis: another heuristic where you make intermediate steps to get to goal

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15
Q

What are the representativeness heuristic and the availability heuristic.

A

The Representativeness heuristic: the tendency to judge evidence according to whether it’s consistent with an existing concept/schema. “What does it look/seem like?”– this person is a thug because he matches schema

The Availability heuristic: the tendency to base conclusions and probability judgements on what is readily available in memory. – if it comes to mind easier, it’s more probable to us

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16
Q

Explain Confirmation Bias and Overconfidence.

Their relationship

A

Overconfidence contributes to confirmation bias.
Confirmation Bias: the tendency to look for evidence that will confirm what we believe rather to disprove it.

Overconfidence: the tendency to overestimate one’s correctness, knowledge, beliefs.

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17
Q

What are some factors that inhibit and facilitate creative problem solving?
What is incubation?

A

Divergent thinking facilitates it, by generating new ideas or variations on existing ideas.
Functional Fixedness interferes with creative problem solving, by blinding us to new ways of using an object or procedure.

Incubation: the phenomenon in which a problem is being worked on in your brain subconsciously, and so randomly a solution pops into your brain after we’ve already put it aside.

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18
Q

What are thoughts at the brain level and at the mind level?

A

Brain level: thoughts are patterns of neural activity

Mind level: thoughts are propositional, imaginal, or motoric mental representations.

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19
Q

What are concepts and how do they enter into propositions?

A

Concepts are mental categories/classes that all share certain characteristics. We put classify things in concepts based on how similar they are to the PROTOTYPE– the most familiar/typical member of that class.

Propositional thought involves the use of concepts in the form of statements. (propositions: statements that express ideas; “It’s time for bed”, “I’m hungry”)
- chimps have NO propositional thought

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20
Q

What roles do schemas play in knowledge acquisition and expertise?
What are scripts?

A

Knowledge acquisition can be viewed as a process of building schemas (=mental frameworks in LTM). Experts are able to use the appropriate schema, which they’ve developed from experience, thus in LTM.
Scripts (a type of schema) provide a framework for understanding sequences of events.

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21
Q

How do you define wisdom?

What are some (5) components of wisdom?

A

Wisdom is a system of knowledge about the meaning and conduct of life.
5 Major components:
- rich factual knowledge
- rich procedural knowledge
- understanding of lifespan contexts=friends, work, fam, leisure
- awareness of the relativism of values and priorities (differs across cultures)
- ability to recognize and manage uncertainty

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22
Q

What are mental images?

Does research support the view that mental images are perceptual?

A

Mental image - representation of a stimulus that originates from the brain rather than external sensory input.

Mental images of objects seem to have properties analogous to actual objects (rotatable, can visually scan them). Research overall has more support to the imagery-as-perception view.

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23
Q

What is our working definition of Intelligence?

A

Intelligence is the ability to acquire knowledge, to think and reason effectively, and to deal adaptively with the environment.

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24
Q

What is the psychometric approach to intelligence?

What’s the newer approach to this?

A

It attempts to map the structure of intellect and establish how many different classes of mental ability underlie test performance.
The Cognitive Processes Approach: focuses on the specific thought processes that underlie mental competencies

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25
How is factor analysis used in the study of intelligence?
Factor analysis (used in psychometric approach) is a statistical technique that can be applied to correlations among test scores to identify clusters that correlate to each other and therefore are assumed to have common underlying factors, such as verbal ability or mathematical reasoning.
26
What did Spearman believe about intelligence? (g) | What led Thurstone to view intelligence as specific mental abilities?
Spearman: intelligence is determined by specific cognitive abilities and a general underlying intelligence (g) Thurstone: intelligence is a set of specific abilities -- because he found distinctions btwn verbal and spatial abilities
27
Differentiate between Crystallized and Fluid Intelligence. | Indicate their relation to aging and types of memory.
Over our lifespan we show a progressive shift from using fluid to crystallized intelligence as we attain wisdom. Crystallized: ability to apply previously learned knowledge to current problems (LTM) === this intelligence increases with age. Fluid: ability to deal with novel problem-solving situations for which personal experience does not provide a solution. = this decreases with age
28
Describe Carroll's three-stratum psychometric model
- mental abilities are represented as 3 levels, with general intelligence at top, and highly specific cognitive and perceptual skills at base. (they all come from the g factor== a single unitary factor) - best combo of all the previously invented models of psychometric representation of human cognitive abilities
29
How to calculate IQ
IQ=(MA/CA) x100 | mental age-- they capabilities compared to standard age capabilities
30
How much do family and school environments contribute to intelligence? How does the weight of these factors change throughout lifespan? How does the weight of these factors change depending on class?
Intelligence is determined by interacting both these factors. Heredity establishes a rxn range for intellectual potential. Environment affects the point within that range that will be reached Shared family environment accounts for 1/4-1/3 of the variance during childhood, but the effects dissipate as we age. While heritability effects on intelligence increases in adulthood. But the weight of genes versus family environment changes: in impoverished fams, shared env>genes. affluent fams: genes>shared environment
31
What effects have been shown in early-intervention programs for disadvantaged children?
These intervention programs have positive effects on later achievement and life outcomes if they begin early in life and are applied intensively. but have little effect when applied with middle- or upper-class children, or after school begins.
32
What sex differences exist in cognitive skills?
Men tend to score higher than women on certain spatial and mathematical reasoning tasks. Women perform slightly better on tests of perceptual speed, verbal fluency, mathematical calculation, and fine-motor coordination.
33
What factors allow gifted people to become eminent?
Gifted people (IQ in the 150s) achieve eminence have a high level of interest and motivation in this activity.
34
How do causal factors differ for mild and profound intellectual disability?
Cognitive disability can range from mild to profound. Genetic factors seem unimportant in profound intellectual disabilities, but play an important role in mild disability, which is why they run in families.
35
Name the four major components of emotions
The primary components of emotion are: - the eliciting stimuli (internal or external) - cognitive appraisals - physiological arousal - expressive and instrumental behaviours
36
How can learning influence emotion?
You can learn to be un/affected by changing the arousal properties of stimuli
37
How do cognitive appraisals enter into emotion?
The cognitive component of emotional experience involves appraisal of the eliciting stimuli. Thoughts can elicit emotional arousal
38
Which subcortical and cortical structures are involved in emotion? What are the two systems for emotional behaviour?
Our physiological responses in emotion are produced by the hypothalamus, the limbic system, and the cortex. + the endocrine and autonomic systems 1) conscious processing in the cortex 2) unconscious processing by the amygdala
39
The "left-right" theory of hemispheric activation differences for positive and negative emotions.
Negative emotions-- greater activation of R hem | Positive emotions-- greater activation of L hem
40
What kinds of errors are most likely in lie detectors?
Difficulty establishing which emotion is being expressed.
41
What evidence exists for fundamental emotional patterns of expression?
The behavioural component of emotion includes expressive and instrumental behaviours. Based on similarities in facial expression of emotions across cultures, evolutionary theorists propose that certain fundamental emotional patterns are innate. but that cultural learning can influence emotional expression
42
How do level of arousal and task complexity combine to affect task performance?
There's an optimal level of arousal for the performance of any task. This optimal varies with complexity/difficulty of task. == COMPLEX tasks have lower arousal levels.
43
Explain Maslow's concept of a need hierarchy
Maslow proposed that needs exist in a hierarchy, from basic biological needs to ultimate need for self-actualization. In line with the psychodynamic theories which emphasize that unconscious motives and mental processes guide much of our behaviour.
44
What are the 3 needs identified in the Self-Determination Theory?
Competence Autonomy (we want to do things w/out outside influences) Relatedness (we want to make bonds)
45
Describe some physiological signals that initiate hunger.
Changing patterns of glucose usage + hormone ghrelin + Neuropeptide Y (from hypothalamus) initiates hunger.
46
What physiological signals cause us to stop eating?
Hormones such as CCK are released into the bloodstream and signal to brain to stop eating. Fat cells release leptin, acts as a long-term signal to regulate appetite. + hypothalamus controls hunger regulation too.
47
Talk about brain activation and food cues
The expected good taste of food + memory + habits + physiological needs drives eating.
48
Explain the gene-environment interaction in obesity? | Why is it so hard for obese people to lose weight?
Hereditary and the environment affect our susceptibility to becoming obese. Homeostatic mechanisms make it difficult to lose substantial weight. (eg, obese people have higher levels of insulin, which increases the conversion of glucose --> fat)
49
What is an emotion? | How is it related to motivation?
An emotion is a positive or negative feeling consisting of a pattern of cognitive, physiological, and behavioural reactions to events that have relevance to important goals or motives.
50
Compare the James-Lange (somatic) and Cannon-Bard explanations for emotional perception and labelling. What does the cognitive appraisal theory say?
James-Lang/somatic theory: we first become aroused and then judge what we're feeling. Cognitive appraisal theory: appraisals trigger emotional arousal. Cannon-Bard theory: arousal and cognition are simultaneously triggered by the thalamus.
51
According to Schachter, what influences perceptions of emotional intensity? What tells us which emotion we're experiencing?
Schachter's Two-factor theory: arousal tells us how strongly we feel, while cognitions derived from situational cues help us label the specific emotion.
52
What does the facial feedback hypothesis state?
Feedback from the facial muscles associated with innate emotional displays affect cognitive physiological processes. (stemmed from James-Lang theory)
53
Explain how cross-sectional, longitudinal, and sequential designs differ.
Cross-sectional: compare people of different age groups at a single point in time. Longitudinal: repeatedly tests the same age group as it grows older Sequential: tests several groups at one point in time and then again when they are older
54
What determines the sex of a child?
God. But also the 23rd chromosome in a mother's egg cell, which is always an X chromosome. If the 23rd chromosome in the father's sperm cell is also an X --> girl! if the father has a Y --> boy!
55
As newborns, what are its sensory capabilities? | What are its perceptual preferences?
They have poor sensory acuity (rapidly improve over 1st year) but can distinguish btwn different visual patterns, speech sounds, odours, and tastes.-- they'll turn their heads toward these. Although, some of these abilities decrease temporarily during the first few months and then recover during first year of life. They prefer complex patters such as a face, even if drawn, over simple patterns or solid colours.
56
Explain the cephalocaudal principle and the proximodistal principle.
Cephalocaudal: development to proceed in head-to-foot direction Proximodistal: from innermost parts to outermost parts.
57
Describe Assimilation and Association | How do they relate to cognitive development?
Assimilation: the process by which new experiences are incorporated into existing schemas. (eg, horse = big dog) Association: the process by which new experiences cause existing schemas to change. (eg, dog schema changes, and develops new schemas like cat) Cognitive growth involves a give and take btwn assimilation and association
58
What are Piaget's 4 major stages of Cognitive Development?
Sensorimotor (0-2) - infants understand world through sensory and motor - achieve object permanence Preoperational (2-7) - symbolic thought (child uses words and images to represent experiences); pretend play - egocentrism (can't see world from other views), irreversibility (can't reverse an action mentally) and centration (focus on one aspect) in thinking Concrete Operational (7-12) - can think logically. grasps concepts of conservation and serial ordering Formal Operational (12+) - can think logically, abstractly, and flexibly - can form hypotheses and test them significantly
59
Cognitive developments during sensorimotor stage.
Sensorimotor (0-2) - infants understand world through sensory and motor - achieve object permanence
60
Achievements and limitations of children's thinking in the preoperational stage?
Preoperational (2-7) - symbolic thought (child uses words and images to represent experiences); pretend play - egocentrism (can't see world from other views), irreversibility (can't reverse an action mentally) and centration (focus on one aspect) in thinking
61
How does thinking change during the concrete operational stage?
``` Concrete Operational (7-12) - can think logically about concrete events. grasps concepts of conservation and serial ordering ```
62
How does thinking change during the formal operational stage?
Formal Operational (12+) - can think logically, abstractly, and flexibly - can form hypotheses and test them significantly
63
What is the zone of proximal development and why is it important?
Each child has a zone of proximal development = the difference btwn what a child can do independently and what they can do with assistance. Helps us to see what children may be able to do by themselves soon. Also we can know how to move the child's development within their zone.
64
At what age do children begin to understand other people's thinking? (theory of mind)
At age 3-4, children start to develop a theory of mind (beliefs about another person's knowledge, feelings, intentions, etc.) eg, candy is moved to other box when mother is gone. Does suzie know that mommy doesn't know what box it's in?
65
What does Erikson's Psychosocial Theory imply about the stability of personality?
He proposed that personality development proceeds through 8 major psychosocial stages. Each stage involves a major crisis, and the way we resolve it influences our ability to meet the challenges of the next stage.
66
What's temperament?
Temperament reflects a pattern of reacting emotionally and behaviourally to the environment. Remains stable across infancy and childhood.
67
According to Bowlby, what are the 3 phases of attachment in infancy (infant-caretaker attachment)?
Infant-caretaker attachment develops in 3 phases: - Indiscriminate attachment (newborns vocalize to everybody which gets them care) - Discriminate attachment (around 3 months of age, infants direct their attachment behaviours toward familiar caregiver) - Specific attachment behaviour (by 7-8 months, infants develop first meaningful attachment)
68
What's stranger anxiety? What's separation anxiety? Does daycare impair infants' attachment?
Stranger anxiety -- distress from contact with unfamiliar people (6-7 months to 18 months) Separation anxiety -- distress over being separated from primary caregiver (12-16months to 2-3 yrs) No, daycare doesn't.
69
Which type of attachment yields better developmental outcomes?
Secure attachment are children who explore the playroom and react positively to strangers. They are distressed when she leaves but greet her happily when she returns. They yield better developmental outcomes in childhood and adolescence than insecurely attached infants.
70
What parenting styles are associated with the most and least positive outcomes in children?
The styles vary along the dimensions of warmth vs hostility; & restrictive vs permissive. With authoritative, authoritarian, indulgent, neglectful. Children of authoritative parents generate the best developmental outcomes.
71
In long term and short term, how do children generally respond to parental divorce?
Short-term: divorce disrupts children's psychological adjustment. And for some children and adolescents, it's associated with long term pattern of maladjustment.
72
How do preconventional, conventional, and postconventional moral reasoning differ?
Moral reasoning proceeds from these 3 levels: - Preconventional moral judgments are based on anticipated rewards and punishments. - Conventional morality is based on conformity to social expectations and laws - Postconventional moral judgements are based on well-thought-out moral principles.
73
How does the brain change during adolescence?
- during adolescence, neural reconstructing is prominent in the prefrontal cortex and the limbic system -- these regions play key role in planning and coordinating behaviours
74
What did Erikson say were the major developmental challenges/crises of early, middle, and late adulthood
``` Early adulthood (20-40) -- intimacy vs isolation Middle (40-65) -- generativity vs stagnation Late (65+) -- integrity vs despair (integrity: a sense of fulfillment) ```
75
Discuss how adolescents' reasoning abilities change, and the ways in which their thinking is egocentric.
Young adolescents often show egocentrism in their social thinking -- a self-absorbed and distorted view of the uniqueness of their feelings and experiences. Keys: identity and friendship
76
Do married people live longer? | How does satisfaction vary through the years?
Yes. | Marital satisfaction tends to decline following children, but increases later in adulthood
77
Myths about life. | Truth about women in careers
Most adults do not experience a full blown mid-life crisis. Most retired people do not become more anxious, depressed or lonely because of retirement. True: women experience more career gaps, and more variable career path
78
How do social norms and social roles guide our behaviour?
A social norm is a shared rule or expectation about how group members should think, feel and behave. A social role is a set of norms that defines a particular position in a social system.
79
Explain the difference btwn informational and normative social influence
Informational Social Influence: you follow the opinions or behaviour of other people because you believe they have it right. Normative Social Influence: you follow them because of the rewards you get by being accepted by people, + you're avoiding rejection.
80
Identify some situational factors that influence people's degree of conformity.
- the size of the majority (although once past 4, then the bigger the group doesn't increase conformity too much, @ 4 you'll conform) - the presence/absence of dissenters
81
Under what conditions is the minority most likely to influence the majority?
Minority influence is strongest when they maintain a consistent position over time but do not appear too deviant from the norm
82
Describe Milgram's obedience experiment.
They found unexpectedly high results of people willing to obey destructive orders. The obedience was strongest when the victim was remote, and when the authority figure was close by and assumes responsibility for what happens.
83
Identify 4 common compliance techniques and how they work
a) the norm of reciprocity (i'll do something nice for you so that you comply with me) b) the door-in-the-face technique (you present a large request, the person rejects, so then you make a smaller offer) c) the foot-in-the-door technique (i get you to comply with a small request first and then, after completed, present a different larger request) d) the lowballing (i get you to agree to do this, but before you do it i increase the stakes/cost of it)
84
Describe deindividuation and what key factor induces this?
Deindividuation is a temporary lowering of restraints that can occur when a person is immersed in a group. Usually, anonymity is the key factor in producing deindividuation.
85
What is social loafing and when is it most likely to occur? | When will it decrease?
Social loafing occurs when people exert less individual effort when working as a group than when working alone. It decreases when the shared goal is valued highly and when people's individual performance can be monitored.
86
Identify two key ways in which the presence of other bystanders often inhibits people from responding to an emergency?
Social Comparison: you look around to see how others are responding Diffusion of Responsibility: they may have thought that someone else called 911
87
What is heredity's role in aggression?
Heredity influences the strength of our tendency to aggress
88
What brain regions play a role in aggression?
hypothalamus, amygdala, frontal lobes
89
Identify some major types of environmental stimuli that increase the risk of aggression.
Provocation, heat, crowds, pain, frustration

Psych 1000 (2 decks)

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