Test 3 Study Guide Flashcards
Functions of circulatory system?
Transportation
Regulation
Transportation o Respiratory Erythrocytes transport oxygen o Nutritive Absorbed products of digestion transported to liver and other body parts o Excretory Metabolic waste, excess ions, and water excreted by the kidneys Regulation o Hormonal Carry hormones to target tissues o Temperature o Protection Blood clotting o Immune Leukocytes, complement, and cytokines act against pathogens
- Whats the normal rate per minute of the heart?
a. Normal HR 60-100 BPM
b. Bradycardia = 100 BPM
a. Step 1: Ventricular Isovolumetric Contraction
i. QRS just occurred = ventricular depolarization
ii. Both AV and semilunar closed
1. Ventricle contracts (Ventricle P > atrial P) AV valves close S1 sound
2. (Ventricle P
b. Step 2: Ejection
i. Initial, rapid ejection of blood from the left ventricle into the aorta and the right ventricle into the pulmonary artery
ii. AV closed semilunar open
1. Ventricle P > aortic P Semilunar valves open
2. No sound produced; sound = abnormal function
iii. SV = volume of blood ejected
c. Step 3: Reduced Ejection – T wave occurs
i. Ventricular P
d. Step 4: Isovolumetric Relaxation
i. All valves closed; semilunar close due to backflow (S2 heart sound), AV remain closed
1. Valves close as ventricles relax
ii. Pressure declines in ventricles
iii. ESV = blood in ventricle
e. Step 5: Rapid Filling of Ventricles
i. Ventricular P
f. Step 6: Reduced Filling - Atrial Systole
i. P wave occurs: depolarization of atria
ii. Atrial contraction squeezes 10-30% more blood into ventricles
1. 90% of blood is already passively filled
iii. AV open and semilunar closed
g. P wave
i. Depolarization of atria
h. PR interval
time between atrial and ventricular depolarization
i. QRS
i. Ventricular Depolarization
ii. Causes S1 sound
j. T wave
i. Ventricular repolarization (relaxation)
Pressure falls below aortic
ii. Causes S2 sound
k. ST Segment
i. End of S beginning of T
ii. Period between ventricular depolarization and repolarization
When do aortic and pulmonary valves open as related to the EKG and heart sounds? AV valves?
S1 occurs immediately after the QRS
AV valves close when ventricles contract
S2 occurs during the T wave
Pulmonary and aortic close when ventricles relax and cause backflow
a. Preload
i. Heart loading up for next big squeeze of ventricles
ii. Amount of ventricular stretch after diastole
iii. Ventricular end diastolic pressure
iv. EDV directly proportional with SV and contractility
b. Afterload
i. Pressure the heart must overcome to push blood out of the aortic valve into systemic circulation
ii. Known as TPR – Total Peripheral Resistance
iii. SV inversely proportional to TPR
Components of blood?
lipid
formed elements
plasma
a. Lipid portion: Mainly fatty acids and cholesterol in vesicles
b. Formed elements = cellular components
i. RBC, WBC, platelets
c. Plasma = water, dissolved solutes, and proteins, Na = major ion
e. WBC – Leukocytes 5-9,000/mL
i. Leukocytosis = elevated WBC count
ii. Leukopenia = Low WBC count
iii. Have nuclei and mitochondria; move like ameoboids
iv. Granulocytes – show up with staining; digestion of endocytosis particles
1. Neutrophils (50-70%)
2. Basophils
3. Eosinophils
v. Agranulocytes
1. Lymphocytes
2. Monocytes
d. RBC – Erythrocytes 5 million/mL
i. Polycythemia = elevated RBC count
ii. Anemia = low RBC count
iii. No nuclei or mitochondria
Each contains 280 million hemoglobin, with 4 heme chains
Removed by phagocytic cells in liver, spleen, and bone marrow
Leukocytes, granulocytes?
Help detoxify foreign substances, release heparin
- Neutrophils (50-70%)
- Basophils
- Eosinophils
Leukocytes, agranulocytes?
Phagocytic; produce antibodies
- Lymphocytes
- Monocytes
- What’s the buffycoat?
a. Little middle section of centrifuge
b. Contains Leukocytes and platelets
- Serum vs plasma difference?
a. Serum is the part of blood after fibrinogen has been removed. Fluid from clotted blood.
i. Liquid part of plasma after blood has been allowed to clot
- What is the conducting system of the heart?
a. SA Node
i. Pacemaker; stimulates atrial contraction
ii. P wave
b. AV Node
i. Provides delay between atrial and ventricular contraction
c. Bundle of his bundle branches purkinje fibers
i. Stimulate individual groups of myocardial cells to contract
ii. QRS complex generated
- Whats the chronotropic effect vs ionotropic effect?
a. Chronotropic = Regulation of Heart Rate
i. Cardiac Control Center = Medulla oblongata
1. Autonomic innervation of SA
a. Easier to depolarize SA node
3. ACh stimulates opening of potassium channels
a. Easier to hyperpolarize SA node
b. Ionotropic = Change force of heart contraction
i. Sympathetic
NE and Epi stimulate opening of calcium and sodium channels
1. More calcium available to sarcomeres
ii. Parasympathetic
1. No change in contraction strength
What is the frank starling law of the heart? What “tropic” effect does it have?
- Increased stretching of myocardium due to greater EDV = more forceful contraction
Ionotropic
- What percent of blood is in the veins, capillaries, heart?
a. Veins = 60-70%
b. Arteries = 10-12%
c. Lungs = 10-12%
d. Capillaries = 4-5%
- Distributions of blood in the body organs?
a. Liver, kidneys, GI = 2500 ml/min
b. Skeletal muscles = 1200 mL/min
c. Brain = 750 mL/min
d. Others = 500-1100 mL/min
e. Coronary arteries = 250 mL/min
- What causes edema?
a. Increased bp or a venous obstruction
b. Increased tissue protein concentration
c. Decreased plasma protein concentration
d. Obstruction of lymphatic vessels
- What happens in right side (goes to lungs) heart failure vs left?
a. Right side failure causes blood returning from the body to back up
b. Left side failure stops pumping of blood to the body
i. Can’t bring in fresh blood from the lungs
ii. Blood pools in the left lung
- Hypertension; normal bp? Systolic over diastolic; What is mild, sever elevation?
a. Normal = less than 120/80
b. Hypertension = Excess of 140/90 mmHg
c. Prehypertension (mild) = 120-140/80-90 mmHg
- Pulse pressure, mean arterial pressure?
a. Pulse pressure = systolic – diastolic
b. Mean arterial Pressure = diastolic P + (1/3)*pulse pressure
Chemotaxis
i. Movement towards chemical attractants i.e. attracting phagocytic cells
b. Opsonization
i. Binding to a pathogen to mark is for phagocytosis i.e antibodies
ii. Formation of antigen-antibody complex
c. Diapedesis
i. Process by which leukocytes squeeze through intact capillary walls into tissue
d. Cytokines
i. Released by cells to affect behavior of other cells i.e. released chemical attractants in chemotaxis
General info about B lymphocytes?
i. Produced in bone marrow
ii. Humoral response – secretes antibodies into blood and lymph; can act from a distance
iii. Combat bacterial and viral infections
iv. Memory cells and Plasma cells
v. Have surface antibodies for antigen receptors
General info about t lymphocytes?
i. Produced in bone marrow, seed in the thymus
1. These then seed blood lymph nodes and spleen
ii. Attack infected host cells – do NOT produce antibodies
iii. Cell-mediated immunity – requires contact with cell
iv. Cannot bind directly to antigen through T cell receptor proteins, require the use of antigen presenting cells such as macrophages or dendritic cells
1. Dendritic cells engulf pathogen, digest, and display protein fragments and secrete cytokines
B vs T (chart)
Site where processed?
B: bone marrow
T: thymus
B vs T (chart)
Type of immunity
B: Humoral (secretes antibodies)
T: Cell-mediated
B vs T (chart)
Subpopulations
B: Memory and plasma
T: cytotoxic killer cells, helper, and suppressor cells
B vs T (chart)
Presence of Surface antibodies?
B: Yes, IgM or IgD
T: Not detectable
B vs T (chart)
Receptors for antigens?
B: present, are surface antibodies
T: Present, are related to immunoglobulins
B vs T (chart)
Life span?
B: short
T: long
B vs T (chart)
Tissue distribution?
B: high in spleen, low in blood
T: high in blood and lymph
B vs T (chart)
Percentage of blood lymphocytes?
B: 10-15%
T: 75-80%
B vs T (chart)
Transformed by antigens into?
B: plasma cells
T: activated lymphocytes
B vs T (chart)
Secretory product?
B: antibodies
T: lymphokines
B vs T (chart)
Immunity to viral infections?
B: enteroviruses, poliomyelitis
T: Most others
B vs T (chart)
Immunity to bacterial infections?
B: streptococcus, staphylococcus, and many others
T: tuberculosis, leprosy
B vs T (chart)
Immunity to fungal infections?
B: none known
T: many
B vs T (chart)
Immunity to parasitic infections?
B: trypanosomiasis, maybe to malaria
T: Most others
- How does an antibody work? How does it cause destruction of an organism?
a. They coat the pathogen to prevent it from entering more cells.
b. Stimulate complement proteins to destroy the pathogen
c. Label pathogens for opsonization phagocytosis, lysis, and inflammation
- What is complement system?
a. Classical Pathway: Proteins in plasma that activate when an antigen binds an antibody
b. Alternative pathway: polysaccharides binding on bacterial membranes
c. Results in chemotaxis, opsonization and stimulation of mast cells to secrete histamine.
d. Part of Non-specific immunity; Integrates the innate and adaptive immune responses
e. Complement activation = complement fixation
a. Exposure to antigen activates B lymphocyte, then…
i. Enters secondary lymphoid organ (primary = bone marrow,thymus)
1. Lymph nodes, spleen, tonsils, and peyers patches (in mucosa of intestine)
2. Function to capture and present pathogens to macrophages
3. Lymphocytes migrate between lymphoid organs to sample blood and lymph
4. Filter lymph for pathogens
ii. Cloning occurs to produce memory cells and plasma cells which produces antibodies
b. Killer (cytotoxic)T cells do…
i. Have CD8 surface molecules
ii. Destroy body cells that harbor foreign antigens
iii. Perforins create pores and granzymes trigger apoptosis
c. Helper T cells do…
i. CD4 surface molecule
ii. Enhances ability of B lymphocytes to become plasma cells and produce antibodies
iii. Enhances ability of cytotoxic T cells to kill by secreting lymphokines
- Parts of the conducting system?
a. Conducts air to the respiratory system
b. Nasal cavitypharynxlarynxtracheaprimary bronchi, secondary, tertiary(more branching), terminal bronchioles
c. Respiratory Zone
i. Respiratory bronchioles, alveolar sac, alveolus
- 3 types of cells in the lung?
a. Type 1 Alveolar
i. Thin, squamous; cover alveolar surface
ii. Involved in gas exchange
b. Type 2 Alveolar
i. Produce surfactant to decrease surface tension
c. Macrophage
i. Destroy foreign material
- Difference between the parietal and visceral pleura? What do they do?
a. Parietal pleura is the outer layer below the rib cage
b. Visceral pleura covers the lungs
i. Produce the intrapleural space
c. Provides a fluid filled space that protects the lungs and provides lubrication, as well as allowing movement of the lungs
Myoglobin
Stores oxy during diastole to release during systole in myocardial cells.
Greater oxygen affinity
Greater red pigment in muscle
- What controls the production of red blood cells?
a. Erythropoietin: a hormone produced in the kidneys controls RBC production
i. Binds to membrane receptors of cells that will become erythroblasts.
ii. Erythroblasts transform into normoblasts.
iii. Normoblasts lose their nuclei to become reticulocytes.
iv. Reticulocytes change into mature RBCs.
stimulate cell division
Need iron, vitamin B12, and folic acid to produce RBCs
Where does hematopoiesis occur? leukopoises?
i. Stem cells differentiate into blood cells
ii. Occurs in myeloid (bone marrow of long bones) tissue and lymphoid tissue
leukopoiesis: lymphoid
erthyropoeisis: myeloid
G-CSF = neutrophils GM_CSF = monocytes and eosinophils
- How does the body determine the changes in arterial oxygen and carbon dioxide?
Medulla
corotid & aortic
carotid
a. Medulla – Rhythmicity center
i. Chemoreceptors for pH in cerebrospinal fluid respond to increased CO2 levels
ii. Control long term response
b. Peripheral chemoreceptors in the aortic (vagus) and carotid (glossopharyngeal) bodies respond to pH levels
c. Carotid body
i. Low blood O2 augments the response to high CO2 levels, and if O2 is low enough, can stimulate ventilation directly
How does the pons function with the medulla? What occurs in the cerebral cortex?
d. Pons
i. Apneustic Area – Stimulate I neurons
ii. Pneumotaxic – antagonizes apneustic
e. Voluntary breathing = cerebral cortex
f. Involuntary breathing = respiratory control centers of medulla and pons
- How does the circulatory system provide protection to the body?
a. Blood clotting